35 The next day John was there again with two of his disciples. 36 When he saw Jesus passing by, he said, "Look, the Lamb of God!"
37 When the two disciples heard him say this, they followed Jesus. 38 Turning around, Jesus saw them following and asked, "What do you want?" They said, "Rabbi" (which means Teacher), "where are you staying?"
39 "Come," he replied, "and you will see." So they went and saw where he was staying, and spent that day with him. It was about the tenth hour.
40 Andrew, Simon Peter's brother, was one of the two who heard what John had said and who had followed Jesus. 41 The first thing Andrew did was to find his brother Simon and tell him, "We have found the Messiah" (that is, the Christ). 42 And he brought him to Jesus. Jesus looked at him and said, "You are Simon son of John. You will be called Cephas" (which, when translated, is Peter ).
Evangelism Jesus' Style
John 1:29-42
Sermon
by Maxie Dunnam
Brendon Gill, a New York theater critic wrote an article in the New Yorker magazine in which he was bemoaning the way all the Broadway musicals are miked and amplified. He said that in great old theaters where actors had spoken and sung with ease for fifty years, audiences are now obliged to listen to what he called a “totally phony sound.” He said that in an amplified world “the voice is never heard in its ordinary resonance ... it is pure tin” (James Harnish, “Like Father, like son,” June 19, 1983).
There is a resurgence of emphasis on evangelism in the church today, and we thank God for that.
With that being the case, why would I think about a theater critic’s word about a “totally phony sound” when I began to prepare a sermon on evangelism? Let me say it candidly. Evangelism can be phony. Our witness can be bogus. I believe that Jesus’ calling of his disciples provides us the insight we need for an authentic evangelism, so I want us to look at Evangelism Jesus’ Style. We will focus first on Jesus’ call of his disciples, then we will draw from that work of Jesus some guide lines for our own witnessing, because that’s what evangelism is — witnessing.
I. JESUS’ CALL
As I look at our scripture lesson, three truths stand out:
One, Jesus invites.
Two, Jesus insures freedom and honors uniqueness.
Three, Jesus involves.
Let’s look at these truths.
A. JESUS INVITES.
John the Baptist is holding forth with his mighty preaching calling people to repentance. People are flocking to hear him, are responding to his preaching, and are being baptized by him in the Jordan. They thought John was Elijah returned to earth. Some even thought he was the Messiah. But no Messianic complex controlled John the Baptist as it often does great public figures. He knew who he was and he knew who Jesus was: “I baptize with water unto repentance,” he said, “but He that is coming after me is mightier than I, he will baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire.”
The next day, after talking about Jesus in that fashion, John the Baptist was with two of his disciples: John and Andrew, when they saw Jesus coming. John the Baptist said, “Behold the Lamb of God, who takes away the sins of the world.” Now here we get to that revealing scene. When John and Andrew heard John the Baptist’s word about Jesus, they were moved to follow Jesus. Now note Jesus’ sensitivity.
“Jesus turned, and saw them following, and said to them, “What do you seek?” And they said to him, ‘Rabbi” (which means Teacher), “where are you staying?” He said to them, “Come and see.” They came and saw where he was staying; and they stayed with him that day, for it was about the tenth hour.” (John 1:38-39 R.S.V.).
I hope you feel the winsome sensitivity in Jesus. No hard sell here. No buttonholing. No pushing of a formula for salvation. An invitation to a relationship — Come and see, Jesus invites.
There’s a beautiful instance of Jesus’ inviting style in the book, The Horse and his Boy (p. 79), one of C. S. Lewis’ stories of Narnia. Aslan, the great lion, is the Christ figure in those stories. The lad Shasta is walking on a steep mountain pass in the middle of a dense night fog. He senses a huge presence walking beside him. Shasta finally gets the courage to whisper out, “Who are you?”
The resonant golden voice of Asian answers, “One who has waited long for you to speak.” That’s Jesus’ style: “Come and see,” he invites.
B. JESUS INSURES FREEDOM AND HONORS UNIQUENESS.
We see this especially in his encounter with Nathaniel. Philip had invited Nathaniel to follow Jesus of Nazareth, whom Philip was certain was the Messiah. Nathaniel made that cynical response, “Can anything good come out of Nazareth?” Philip obviously took his cue from Jesus because he responded to Nathaniel, “Come and see.” Now let’s read from scripture:
“Jesus saw Nathaniel coming to him, and said of him, “Behold, an Israelite indeed, in whom is no guile!” Nathanael said to him, “How do you know me?” Jesus answered him, “Before Philip called you, when you were under the fig tree, I saw you.” Nathanael answered him, “Rabbi, you are the Son of God! You are the King of Israel!” (John 1:47-49, RSV).
Note the quick change from cynicism to faith. “Can anything good come out of Nazareth?” “Rabbi, you are the Son of God! You are the King of Israel!” (vs. 49)
What brought this change? There’s no question about it in my mind. Nathaniel was impressed by the fact that not only had Jesus noticed him, Jesus knew him, insured his freedom and honored his uniqueness “an Israelite in whom there was no guile”.
Later in chapter 2, John says that Jesus knew what was in man. He had a way of looking, a way of seeing, a way of discerning, and he valued every person for who that person was. He insured every person’s freedom and honored their uniqueness.
C. JESUS INVOLVES.
It is all captured in that simple command, “Follow me.”
Have you ever noted that Jesus never argued? Read the New Testament. The atmosphere of every encounter Jesus had with persons was charged not with argument but with the necessity to make a decision.
It is only as we follow that we know the way. Jesus’ plan is clear - we must enlist before He gives us orders. We must become His friend and walk with Him before we can know His purpose. He involves us with Him and promises, “He who follows Me will not walk in darkness, but will have the Light of Life.”
II. GUIDELINES
So, this is what Jesus does in relation to us. He invites. He insures freedom and honors uniqueness. He involves. In light of the way He called His disciples, let’s look at our call to witness, let’s look at Evangelism — Jesus’ style.
One big idea emerges: evangelism Jesus’ style is personal and relational. There have been times when witnessing to strangers was effective evangelism. Campus Crusade did a credible job at that. There are rare occasions – on an airplane, in a restaurant, at a party, in a chance meeting, a new neighbor – rare occasions when we are called to witness and witness we must – but that is not effective evangelism for all God’s people. Besides the vast majority of Christians do not feel comfortable doing that kind of witnessing, and thus they feel impotent evangelistically.
But all of us can be witnesses, Jesus’ style, which is personal and relational.
The Church Growth Institute in California asked 14,000 lay people the question, “What or who was responsible for your coming to Christ and your church?” Less than 10% credited a pastor, a visitation program, or evangelistic crusade. Almost 90% said they owed their introduction to the Christian Faith to a friend or relative. This is the most natural process whereby someone becomes a disciple of Jesus Christ.
Do you see where that puts us and the opportunity it provides? The statistics are on the side of ordinary people who are willing to share their faith with those around them – to be a friend, to make a friend, and to bring a friend to Christ.
If that strikes you as a radical idea, I say, it is biblically and theologically valid. We are to be Christ to others. “In as much as you did it unto the least of these, you did it unto me.”
The response Christ wants most from us who have given ourselves to him, is to share his love through our actions, our attitudes, our relationships, and our verbal witness with others.
Suppose you decided to take that seriously. What then is involved in being a friend - in being a personal and relational witness?
One, be a caring person who majors in encouragement. Lonely, hurting, suffering people need a friend who cares.
Chuck Swindoll in his book, Killing Giants and Pulling Thorns, tells about a little girl who “lost a playmate in death and one day reported to her family that she had gone to comfort the sorrowing mother.” “What did you say,” asked her father.
“Nothing,” she replied. “I just climbed up on her lap and cried with her.” (Charles R. Swindoll, Killing Giants and Pulling Thorns, Portland, Oregon: Multnomah Press, l979, pp. 39-40).
That little girl had the right idea — be a caring person.
Two, be sensitive to people. Listen attentively and non-judgmentally. Listen to their feelings, their suffering – and respond caringly to what you hear.
We used to say that we lived in a cold, stainless steel world. Then the symbol changed – it became a “plastic world.” Now it’s a “computer world” – and who can relate to what I heard in a ditty about the effect of this: “The fellows up in personnel, they have a set of cards on me.”
Three, be a part of God’s answer. We can’t meet everybody’s needs, but we can meet the needs of some. Pray not only for your friends’ needs, but that God will you in being the answer to those needs.
Four, be alert. Now that sounds prosaic, but it is crucial. Do you try to meet the people who move into your neighborhood? Do you share your Christian life and church relationship with them? What about the people with whom you work, your social contacts? If we are alert to people, we will find ways of sharing the good news with them.
So, that’s what it means to be a friend. It is not everything evangelism is, but it is enough to go on, to enable use to practice evangelism in a personal and relational way.
The final thing I would say is evangelism Jesus-Style emphasizes Gospel, not law. In a book entitled, The View from a Hearse, Joe Bayly, who lost three of his children, tells this story. He was sitting, torn by grief, over his wrenching loss. Someone came and talked to him about God’s dealings, of why it happened, of hope beyond the grave, the fellow talked constantly, saying things that Bayly knew was true. But Bayly said, “I was unmoved, except to wish he would go away. He finally did.” Then said Bayly, “Another came and sat beside me. He didn’t talk. He didn’t ask me leading questions. He sat beside me for an hour or more, listened when I said something, answered briefly, prayed simply, left. I was moved, I was comforted. I hated to see him go.” (Quoted by Swindoll, Ibid., p. 39).
Most people don’t need advice from us — they get plenty of that. They don’t need us to preach to them, or to argue with them, or try to convince them of some theological proof. Most people don’t need advice from us - they need love — and isn’t that the Gospel?
Do you remember the inimitable Bear Bryant? I heard a story about him that really touches. Just before he retired, he said: “When I retire, I’ll probably die; I’ll probably have a heart attack!” Did you know he said that? A month, 30 days before he retired, he said, “I’ll probably die soon after I retire. Football has been my life all of my life. If I retire, I have a feeling that I may not make it.” Some of his players who heard him say that had their hearts broken.
Bobby McKenna who was one of those players called Bear Bryant and said, “Bear, I’ve got to come see you. I’ve been grieved about something you’ve said for two days. I’ve got to look at you, I’ve got to say something to you. I want to come to your office.”
He said, “Come on up, Bobby”.
Bobby walked in and said, “Bear, you said that if you retired probably in 30 days you would be dead.” “Bear, I love you and that breaks my heart. I’m a Christian, I know Christ. I don’t know if you’re a Christian or not, and I can’t stand that. Bear, I’ve got to ask you something: If you should die in 30 days, are you sure that you’d go to heaven?”
And Bear dropped his head and said, “Bobby, I’ve got to be honest with you. I can’t answer that.”
Bobby said, “Oh Bear, I want you to be able to answer that. I want to pray for you right now.” And they prayed together and read the scripture together and Bear said, “Bobby, I’ve just got a block. I grew up in a big family and we scrapped for everything we had. This business you said of just confessing my sins and just by the grace of God will do it. I just can’t understand that. We had to fight for everything we had – that made me a fighter as a coach. That’s why I’m a winner; I grew up doing that. That’s who I am. And it just seems to me that I’ve got to scratch and fight — I’ve got to do something to be saved.”
Bobby said, “He’s done it already, Coach. All you have to do is accept it and receive it.” Bear said, “I just can’t understand that.” Bobby said, “I’m going to pray for you every hour until you do understand that and until you accept Jesus Christ.”
Later that same day, Bear Bryant got on the phone and called Steve Sloan, his old quarterback. He said, “Steve, I know you. I’ve seen you in the clinches; I know you’re a Christian; and Steve, I don’t know if there’s another human being on earth with whom I can bear my soul like I can with you. I’m on my way to Chicago. Would you meet me at the airport?”
Steve said, “When?”
Bear said, “Tomorrow.”
Steve said, “I’m not going to be in that vicinity tomorrow.”
Bear said, “Yes you are Steve. You’ve got to be. I’ve got to have you there. I’ll never ask you to do anything else. This is the most important request I’ll ever make. I’ve got to have you there. It’s life and death; it’s eternity.”
And Steve said, “Bear, I’ll be there.”
When he got off the plane, Bear said, “Steve, Bobby McKenna walked into my office and asked if I died in 30 days, would I go to heaven and I couldn’t answer that question; and I’ve got to just bear my soul with somebody I love, and you are the man. I don’t know whether you can help me or not, but I can talk to you like nobody else. Will you listen to me?”
And they sat down and shared for two hours. And then Steve opened the Word, and God was there. Bear Bryant said, “How do I do it?” He got on his knees and reached up toward heaven, and like a little child confessed his sins, and Jesus Christ came into his heart. In less than ten days, Bear Bryant was dead.
He had won the greatest ball game of his life just before the final whistle blew. (quoted from Dr. Jimmy Buskirk, Session #4, CFR – 1984).
Do you feel the power of that? Bobby McKenna and Steve Sloan…caring friends, who were sensitive, alert, and were willing to be God’s answer.
They practiced evangelism Jesus’ style.
The people you know are not Bear Bryant’s but they are as important to God as Bear. And you may be as important to them as Steve Sloan and Bobby McKenna were to Bear.
“Come and see” Jesus said.
You can say the same.
That’s evangelism, Jesus’ style.
ChristianGlobe Networks, Inc., Collected Sermons, by Maxie Dunnam
John the Baptizer plays his part faithfully and points his own disciples to Jesus (1:35–37). Andrew and another disciple follow Jesus initially (1:37–40). Then Andrew brings his brother Simon to meet Jesus the Messiah (1:40–42), who promptly gives Simon a new name—“Cephas” (Aramaic) or “Peter” (Greek), meaning “rock” (1:42). Peter’s life would never be the same! The next day Jesus calls Philip to fol…
The Baker Bible Handbook by , Baker Publishing Group, 2016
35 The next day John was there again with two of his disciples. 36 When he saw Jesus passing by, he said, "Look, the Lamb of God!"
37 When the two disciples heard him say this, they followed Jesus. 38 Turning around, Jesus saw them following and asked, "What do you want?" They said, "Rabbi" (which means Teacher), "where are you staying?"
39 "Come," he replied, "and you will see." So they went and saw where he was staying, and spent that day with him. It was about the tenth hour.
40 Andrew, Simon Peter's brother, was one of the two who heard what John had said and who had followed Jesus. 41 The first thing Andrew did was to find his brother Simon and tell him, "We have found the Messiah" (that is, the Christ). 42 And he brought him to Jesus. Jesus looked at him and said, "You are Simon son of John. You will be called Cephas" (which, when translated, is Peter ).
The testimony of John continues, as he now directs his disciples to follow Jesus (1:35–42). This section and the next model for us the true character of discipleship. First, disciples must follow Jesus (1:37–38, 43); they must “come and see” (1:39, 46), experiencing for themselves the truth of Christ. And then they must go and bring others: Andrew finds his brother Simon (1:41), and Philip finds Nathanael (1:45). Second, we read a roll call of titles for Jesus from 1:35–51—Lamb of God (1:36), Rabbi (1:38), Messiah/Christ (1:41), Jesus of Nazareth, son of Joseph (1:45), Son of God (1:49), King of Israel (1:49), and Son of Man (1:51). Disciples must know whom they follow. In 1:35–42 John the Baptist sees Jesus and repeats the identification given at Jesus’s baptism (1:36, repeating 1:29). He then ushers his disciples into Jesus’s company. The language here is important. The first question of the disciples, “Where are you staying?” (1:38), employs a vital word for John. “Staying” or “abiding” (Greek menō) appears throughout the Gospel (forty times) and describes the union of the believer with Christ (see, e.g., 8:31, 35; 14:10; 15:4–17). Hence Andrew and an unnamed disciple (John?) abide with Christ.
The Baker Illustrated Bible Commentary by Gary M. Burge, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
John the Baptist repeats his testimony to Jesus as Lamb of God in the presence of two of his disciples (v. 36). This is how he makes Jesus known to “Israel.” In effect, he delivers his own disciples over to Jesus. One of the two is said to be Andrew (v. 40), but the other is not identified. It is widely assumed that the second disciple is the Gospel writer himself, the “beloved disciple” mentioned five times in the latter half of the Gospel. But not all anonymous disciples have to be the same. More likely, the second disciple is Philip (cf. 1:43), who appears alongside Andrew on two other occasions (6:5–9; 12:21–22) and who, like Andrew, brings someone else to Jesus (1:43–51). The two disciples in verses 35–39 thus anticipate verses 40–42 and 43–51 respectively: Jesus calls Andrew and Philip; Andrew brings his brother Simon to Jesus, while Philip brings Nathanael.
The story of the call is classically simple. The two disciples hear John’s proclamation and follow Jesus. The fact that they followed, however, which connotes discipleship, is not the end of the story but its beginning. Jesus asks them what they are looking for, and their request is to see where he lives. So they visit his quarters in Bethany and spend the day with him. In the interest of accuracy, the narrator adds the qualification that they actually spent only part of a day, because it was already about the tenth hour (four o’clock in the afternoon, v. 39) and the day ended at sundown. What mattered most was not how long they stayed, but simply the fact that they spent time with Jesus. He became their rabbi, or teacher (v. 38; cf. 13:13). Discipleship in this Gospel means not only following Jesus but remaining with him. From time to time Jesus will be seen spending time privately with disciples or would-be disciples between public confrontation with the authorities in Jerusalem (e.g., 2:12; 3:22; 4:40; 6:3; 10:40–42; 11:54; 18:2). Before his departure from the world, Jesus tells his disciples to “remain” united to him by remaining in his love and obeying his commands (15:1–10). Discipleship begins with leaving one’s past life to “follow” Jesus (cf. Mark 1:16–20) and comes to completion either in “following” him at last to a martyr’s death or “remaining” faithful to him in a life of loving obedience (cf. John 21:19–23).
If the two disciples spent the rest of Day Three with Jesus, the events of verses 40–42 must be taking place on Day Four. Yet The next day is not announced until v. 43. Why? The narrator apparently does not want the call of Simon Peter (verses 40–42) to detract from the more extended account of the call of Nathanael, which is where his chief interest lies. The call of Simon is part of his tradition and he has no desire to leave it out, but strictly speaking it has no day of its own assigned to it in the sixday sequence. It is simply an appendix to Day Three, included for the sake of completeness and to prepare for the events of Day Four. Andrew finds Simon and says, We have found the Messiah (v. 41); Philip finds Nathanael and says, We have found the one Moses wrote about (1:45); Jesus calls Simon a rock (Cephas or Peter, v. 42), and Nathanael, a true Israelite (1:47). But here the parallels stop. Jesus’ interview with Simon Peter ends as abruptly as it began, whereas Nathanael goes on to confess his faith and receive a promise on behalf of all the disciples (1:49–51).
If we had only this introductory narrative we would conclude that Simon Peter was a minor figure in John’s Gospel and Nathanael a major one, but as it turns out, the reverse is true. Simon Peter’s confession is not omitted, only deferred (6:68–69), and the reader will learn more about him than about any other disciple (e.g., 13:36–38; 18:15–18, 25–27; 21:15–19). But little is made of Simon’s new name. There is no equivalent to the Matthean promise to Peter that “on this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16:18). Though this disciple is commonly known as “Peter” or “Simon Peter,” Jesus can still address him as late as 21:15–17 as “Simon son of John.” The tradition of Peter the Rock is preserved and affirmed, but more important to the Gospel writer is Simon the Shepherd (again cf. 21:15–17).
Philip’s “call” is different from the call described in verses 35–39. Jesus “found” Philip (v. 43) just as Andrew “found” Simon (v. 41) and just as Philip himself found Nathanael a short time later (v. 45). In the other two cases, finding implies the seeking out of a particular person: Andrew looked for his brother, and Philip looked for his Galilean friend. It is likely that Jesus, too, did not just run into Philip by chance but knew him and sought him out deliberately.
This makes sense if Philip is indeed the unnamed disciple of the previous day. When Jesus says to Philip, Follow me (v. 43), it is therefore not the initial call to discipleship but an invitation to accompany Jesus to Galilee. The point of the parenthetical note that Philip, as well as Andrew and Peter, were Galileans from Bethsaida is to show the appropriateness of such an invitation. But what were all these Galileans doing in Bethany, on the east side of the Jordan, with John the Baptist? Even Nathanael turns out to be from Cana in Galilee (21:2). Galilee and the region beyond the Jordan were both under the rule of Herod Antipas, the tetrarch whose marital adventures John denounced and who finally imprisoned John and put him to death (Mark 6:17–29; cf. Josephus, Antiquities 18.116–19). John the Baptist obviously attracted considerable attention in Galilee, a center for messianic expectations, and it is not surprising that he is represented here as having gained a Galilean following.
Now the group of Galileans is going home. Their journey to attend the wedding at Cana (2:1–11) and to spend a few days at Capernaum (2:12) is under way. Only Jesus and Philip are mentioned at first, but the assumption in chapter 2 is that all of Jesus’ disciples (at least four in number) are present. The group forms when Philip tells his fellow Galilean Nathanael a startling bit of news: The Messiah has appeared and is himself Galilean, Jesus of Nazareth, the son of Joseph (v. 45). Nathanael’s answer reflects a kind of provincialism in reverse that refuses to see glory or greatness in anything familiar or close to home. When he asks, Nazareth! Can anything good come from there? (v. 46), it is not a matter of small town rivalries but of that human blindness described in Francis Thompson’s In No Strange Land:
Not where the wheeling systems darken,
And our benumbed conceiving soars!
The drift of pinions, would we hearken,
Beats at our own clay-shuttered doors.
The angels keep their ancient places;
Turn but a stone, and start a wing!
‘Tis ye, ’tis your estrangèd faces,
That miss the many-splendored thing.
Nathanael’s attitude parallels that of the people in the synagogues at Capernaum (6:42) and at Nazareth itself (Mark 6:1–6; cf. Luke 4:16–30). Because Jesus’ antecedents are local, and known locally, he cannot be anyone special. He certainly cannot be the one Moses wrote about in the Law, and about whom the prophets also wrote (v. 45). As some said later in Jerusalem, “we know where this man is from; when the Christ comes, no one will know where he is from” (7:27). In particular, the Messiah was not supposed to come from Galilee (7:41–42). Though Nathanael’s skepticism was probably based as much on feeling as on doctrine, the narrator has made him the spokesman for all such biases. Probably, when the Gospel was written, Jews were saying of the Christians (or Nazarenes), “Nazareth! Can anything good come from there?” (cf. Acts 24:5). Nathanael’s conversion therefore typifies the conversion of any Jew who overcomes such prejudices against Christianity and believes in Jesus. Nathanael, Jesus declares, is a true Israelite, in whom there is nothing false (v. 47).
Jesus shows here, even more clearly than in his renaming of Simon, a supernatural insight into people’s character (cf. 2:25). He is apparently referring to the patriarch Jacob, who practiced deception until he met God in the person of an angel and had his name changed to “Israel” (Gen. 32:28). Nathanael is an Israelite worthy of that name. Jesus is not so much praising Nathanael’s candor in giving voice to his skepticism (v. 46) as simply doing what he did for Simon: looking at him and seeing not what he is but what he will become. Nor does Nathanael’s reply (v. 48a) mean that he immodestly considers himself “a true Israelite.” He merely expresses surprise that Jesus speaks as if they had met before. Jesus’ strange allusion to seeing him under the fig tree (v. 48b) strikes a responsive chord and becomes for him a sign of Jesus’ supernatural knowledge.
One can only speculate about what Jesus meant by under the fig tree. Was he referring to an incident in Bethany just before Philip brought Nathanael to him, or to something in Galilee in the more distant past? Why was the fig tree so significant to Nathanael? Because there are no answers to these questions, it is possible that the story has a symbolic side to it. If Nathanael is a true Israelite representing the “Israel” to whom Jesus must be revealed (cf. 1:31), then the saying recalls Hosea 9:10. “When I found Israel, it was like finding grapes in the desert; when I saw your fathers, it was like seeing the early fruit on the fig tree.” The point is perhaps that Jesus finds the new Israel in the same way that God his Father found the old. Jesus spoke elsewhere of the delight of uncovering an unexpected treasure in a field or of selling everything to acquire a magnificent pearl (Matt. 13:44–46), or of finding a lost coin or a lost sheep (Luke 15:1–10). Hosea’s image of discovering fruit in a barren land was well suited to make a similar point. Jesus’ disciples are indeed a precious find, a gift from the Father (cf. 6:37; 17:6), but because it is too early in the Gospel for such a disclosure, the pronouncement remains something of an enigma.
Nathanael, like the Samaritan woman after him, hears Jesus’ words as the pronouncement of One “who told me everything I ever did” (cf. 4:29). But while the Samaritan woman merely raised the possibility that Jesus might be the Messiah, Nathanael announces boldly and without question that you are the Son of God; You are the King of Israel (v. 49).
The two titles, virtually synonymous in this context, are alternate ways of saying that Jesus is the Messiah (cf. vv. 41, 45). The designation of Israel’s anointed king as God’s son goes back to Psalm 2:6–7. The Gospel writer knows that Jesus is the Son of God in a more profound sense than Nathanael could have understood (cf. 1:14, 18), yet he allows Nathanael (like John the Baptist) to speak for the Christian community. Nathanael’s Son of God and King of Israel anticipate the Gospel writer’s hope that all his readers “may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God” and so have life (20:31). Within Nathanael’s limitations, King of Israel (i.e., Messiah) defines what Son of God means, but for the writer and his readers Son of God (i.e., the divine eternal Son) defines what “Messiah” or King of Israel means. The Gospel of John is the story of the crowning of the Son of God as King, paradoxically, in his death (cf. 12:13, 15; 19:14, 19).
Nathanael has prophesied the end from the beginning, yet his confession is not quite adequate. The words are right, but they rest on an insufficient foundation. Nathanael believed because he was impressed with Jesus’ supernatural knowledge. Jesus promises him, and the other disciples, greater things than that (v. 50). They will see heaven open, and the angels of God ascending and descending on the Son of Man (v. 51). The promised vision is like that of Jacob, who “had a dream in which he saw a stairway resting on the earth, with its top reaching to heaven, and the angels of God were ascending and descending on it’ (Gen. 28:12). In the place of Jacob is the Son of Man, Jesus himself. The vision is his, but the disciples, like John the Baptist at Jesus’ baptism (1:32–34), will share in that vision. They will begin to see “his glory, the glory of the One and Only, who came from the Father” (1:14).
The events of four days have been leading up to this pronouncement. All the varied titles for Jesus—“Messiah” (or “Christ”), “Lamb of God,” “Son of God,” “King of Israel”—find their answer in the self-designation Son of Man. In all the Gospels, this is Jesus’ most characteristic and distinctive term for himself. The promise of a vision of the Son of Man recalls his statement in Mark 14:62 at his trial that “you will see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of the Mighty One and coming on the clouds of heaven” (cf. Matt. 26:64). The difference is that in our passage the Son of Man is on earth. Like Jacob, he is at the bottom of the stairway, the recipient of divine revelation and the focus of that revelation in the world. Nathanael and the other disciples will see the truth, not in the far-off heavens or a distant future, and not in the messianic doctrines of the rabbis, but right now before their very eyes, in Jesus himself (cf. Rom. 10:6–8). Nathanael is promised a vision that will overcome his disdain for the familiar and the commonplace. He will learn what it means that “the Word became flesh and made his dwelling among us” (1:14). His vision of glory (even from Nazareth!) lives on in the next stanza of Francis Thompson’s poem:
But (when so sad thou canst not sadder)
Cry, and upon thy so sore loss
Shall shine the traffic of Jacob’s ladder
Pitched between heaven and Charing Cross!
The questions remain of when and how the vision came to pass. Did Nathanael and the others actually see angels … ascending and descending on the Son of Man? John the Baptist’s promised vision of the descending Spirit came to pass at Jesus’ baptism, but there is no comparable event with which to connect this promise. There is no definite time at which the disciples literally saw Jesus re-enacting the dream of Jacob, any more than there is a definite time at which the Jewish high priest saw Jesus “sitting at the right hand of the Mighty One and coming on the clouds of heaven” (Mark 14:62). Nor do angels play any significant role in the fourth Gospel (cf. only 12:29; 20:12). Yet angels … ascending and descending on the Son of Man is just as much a reality as Jesus seated at God’s right hand and coming to earth again. It is the same reality witnessed by John the Baptist, the reality that Jesus Christ even in his humanity is united to heaven and enjoys perfect communion with God his Father (cf. 8:29; 11:41–42). The disciples will see this reality not in a particular vision of angels, but in Jesus’ ministry as a whole, beginning with the wedding at Cana.
Additional Notes
1:39 The tenth hour. The Jews reckoned the daylight hours from 6:00 a.m. Some have argued that John’s Gospel follows instead a Roman-Egyptian system similar to ours, in which the day begins at midnight. This would mean that the two disciples joined Jesus at 10:00 a.m. The reckoning of hours becomes an issue in fixing the exact time of Jesus’ death (cf. 19:14), but the burden of proof is on those who deny that the writer is following the common Jewish practice.
1:41 The first thing Andrew did. The Greek is simply prōton, “first,” used adverbially. Some ancient manuscripts read prōtos (yielding the translation, “Andrew was the first”). Others read prōi (“early next morning”). The last of these, while incorrect, yields an accurate picture of the sequence of events.
1:51 I tell you the truth: lit., “Amen, amen, I say to you.” This formula is used twenty-four times in John’s Gospel with sayings of special importance either to the Gospel writer himself or to those from whom he received his traditions. It is a solemn attestation of the truth of the saying to follow, a rhetorical form that originated with Jesus. “Amen” was customarily used to conclude a statement or a prayer, but Jesus used it instead as an introduction. The doubled “amen” occurs only (and always) in the fourth Gospel, but appears to have the same meaning as the single “amen” of the Synoptics.
On the Son of Man: In the Greek translation of Gen. 28:12, Jacob saw the angels going up and down “on it” (i.e., on the ladder or stairway), but the original Hebrew is ambiguous and some of the rabbis read the text as “on him” (i.e., on Jacob). The phrase in John’s Gospel uses the Greek preposition epi with the accusative case to denote motion toward an object. The one preposition actually does service for two; the meaning is that angels ascend from and descend to the Son of Man. The Son of Man does not correspond to the stairway in Jacob’s vision, but to Jacob himself at the bottom. Jesus enters into the vision of the patriarch, imaginatively makes it his own, and by his word, shares it in turn with his disciples.
Understanding the Bible Commentary Series by J. Ramsey Michaels, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Direct Matches
One of the twelve apostles and brother of Peter. Andrew came from Bethsaida in Galilee (John 1:44), though he lived and worked with Peter in Capernaum as a fisherman (Matt. 4:18). At first a disciple of John the Baptist, he, with an unnamed disciple (possibly John), transferred allegiance to Jesus (John 1:35 40). His first recorded act was to bring his brother to Jesus (John 1:41–42). Subsequently, he was called by Jesus to become a permanent follower (Matt. 4:19) and later was appointed as an apostle (Matt. 10:2).
The English word “messiah” derives from the Hebrew verb mashakh, which means “to anoint.” The Greek counterpart of the Hebrew word for “messiah” (mashiakh) is christos, which in English is “Christ.”
In English translations of the Bible, the word “messiah” (“anointed one”) occurs rarely in the OT. In the OT, kings, prophets, and priests were “anointed” with oil as a means of consecrating or setting them apart for their respective offices. Prophets and priests anointed Israel’s kings (1Sam. 16:1 13; 2Sam. 2:4, 7).
The expectation for a “messiah,” or “anointed one,” arose from the promise given to David in the Davidic covenant (2Sam. 7). David was promised that from his seed God would raise up a king who would reign forever on his throne. Hopes for such an ideal king began with Solomon and developed further during the decline (cf. Isa. 9:1–7) and especially after the collapse of the Davidic kingdom.
The harsh reality of exile prompted Israel to hope that God would rule in such a manner. A number of psalms reflect the desire that an ideal son of David would come and rule, delivering Israel from its current plight of oppression. Hence, in Ps. 2 God declares that his son (v.7), who is the Lord’s anointed one (v.2), will receive “the nations [as] your inheritance, the ends of the earth your possession” (v.8). God promises that “you will rule them with an iron scepter; you will dash them to pieces like pottery” (v.9; see NIV footnote). Jesus demonstrates great reticence in using the title “Messiah.” In the Synoptic Gospels he almost never explicitly claims it. The two key Synoptic passages where Jesus accepts the title are themselves enigmatic. In Mark’s version of Peter’s confession (8:29), Jesus does not explicitly affirm Peter’s claim, “You are the Messiah,” but instead goes on to speak of the suffering of the Son of Man. Later, Jesus is asked by the high priest Caiaphas at his trial, “Are you the Christ, the Son of the Blessed One?” (Mark 14:60). In Mark 14:62, Jesus answers explicitly with “I am,” while in Matt. 26:64, he uses the more enigmatic “You have said so.” Jesus then goes on to describe himself as the exalted Son of Man who will sit at Yahweh’s right hand.
Jesus no doubt avoided the title because it risked communicating an inadequate understanding of the kingdom and his messianic role. Although the Messiah was never a purely political figure in Judaism, he was widely expected to destroy Israel’s enemies and secure its physical borders. Psalms of Solomon portrays the coming “son of David” as one who will “destroy the unrighteous rulers” and “purge Jerusalem from Gentiles who trample her to destruction” (Pss. Sol. 17.21–23). To distance himself from such thinking, Jesus never refers to himself as “son of David” and “king of Israel/the Jews” as other characters do in the Gospels (Matt. 12:23; 21:9, 15; Mark 10:47; 15:2; John 1:49; 12:13; 18:33). When Jesus was confronted by a group of Jews who wanted to make him into such a king, he resisted them (John 6:15).
In Mark 12:35–37, Jesus also redefines traditional understandings of the son of David in his short discussion on Ps. 110:1: he is something more than a mere human son of David. Combining Jesus’ implicit affirmation that he is the Messiah in Mark 8:30 with his teaching about the Son of Man in 8:31, we see that Jesus is a Messiah who will “suffer many things and be rejected by the elders, the chief priests, and the teachers of the law” (8:31) and through whom redemption will come (10:45). Jesus came not to defeat the Roman legions, but to bring victory over Satan, sin, and death.
Simon Peter is the best-known and the most colorful of Jesus’ twelve disciples. The name “Peter” means “rock” in Greek. In some biblical texts, he is also called “Cephas,” which is the Aramaic word for “rock” (see esp. John 1:42). Despite the ups and downs of Peter’s spiritual life, God was able to use him as the foundational apostle for the establishment of the NT church.
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesus followers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christ embodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in human history.
Birth and childhood. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem during the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesus was probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’s death (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of a virginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18; Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governor Quirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place in Bethlehem (2:15). Both the census and the governorship at the time of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars. Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to either confirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must be determined on the basis of one’s view regarding the general reliability of the Gospel tradition.
On the eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keeping with the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus” (Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home of his parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel of Luke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth in strength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke also contains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Baptism, temptation, and start of ministry. After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke 3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring to him as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instant ministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into the wilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that the temptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Luke identify three specific temptations by the devil, though their order for the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesus was tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine intervention after jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’s kingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation, quoting Scripture in response.
Matthew and Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum in Galilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13; Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirty years of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity or perhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of the Levites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning of Jesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples and the sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Galilean ministry. The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and around Galilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that the kingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment of prophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ first teaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30); the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for his calling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection and suffering.
All the Gospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in his Galilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke 5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioning of the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers is recorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministry is the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke 6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, in particular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synoptics focus on healings and exorcisms.
During Jesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with his identity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority (Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family (3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner of Beelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesus told parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growing kingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humble beginnings (4:1–32).
The Synoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful. No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority or ability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized many demons (5:1–13), raised the dead (5:35–42), fed five thousand (6:30–44), and walked on water (6:48–49).
In the later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew and traveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are not written with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns to Galilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fear resolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee, where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ disciples with lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed the Pharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents (7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demanding a sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, who confessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus did provide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesus withdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician woman requested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sent only to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans had long resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality that allotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere “crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Even the dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,” Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-mute man in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’s confession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’ travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The city was the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judean ministry. Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry as he resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually led to his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem into three phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27). The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of the journey. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, and the demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem (Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45; Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journey toward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvation and judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase of the journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are the main themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Social conflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposte interactions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel (Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomic feathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who had little value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16; Luke 18:15–17).
Passion week, death, and resurrection. Each of the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with the crowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark 11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Luke describes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during which Jesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
In Jerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17). Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because the whole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “began looking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segment of Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’ authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions (12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation (12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s own destruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, Judas Iscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’ arrest (14:10–11).
At the Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a new covenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29; Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned the disciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark 14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and later he prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agony and submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42; Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial, crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15; Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18). Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission by making disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8) and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return (Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
A common name in first-century Judaism. The Greek name Iōannēs comes from the Hebrew name “Yohanan.” (1)The Baptist or Baptizer, he was the son of the priest Zechariah and Elizabeth. (See John the Baptist.) (2)The son of Zebedee, he was an apostle originally belonging to the inner circle of the twelve main disciples of Jesus. (See John the Apostle.) (3) John Mark, a cousin of Barnabas (Col. 4:10) and the son of Mary (Acts 12:12). (See Mark, John.) (4)The elder. Both 2John and 3John claim authorship by “the elder” (2John 1; 3John 1). Traditionally, all three Johannine Letters, the Gospel of John, and sometimes the Revelation of John have been attributed to John the apostle. However, modern scholarship often attributes 2John and 3John, and sometimes 1John, to “the elder”—John the elder. (5)The seer, the author of the book of Revelation (see 1:1, 4, 9; 22:8). Some scholars ascribe the authorship of Revelation to John the apostle, in line with the view of the church father Irenaeus. Other scholars ascribe the writing of Revelation to a certain John the elder. The book of Revelation does not further identify the author. However, the author is among the prophets, a seer, and his name is “John”—hence, John the seer.
A title of Jesus used in the Gospel of John, the Letters of John, and the book of Revelation.
The phrase first appears in John 1:29, where John recognizes Jesus as the one “who takes away the sin of the world,” and then again in John 1:36, when John’s outcry causes two of his disciples to become the first followers of Jesus.
The main reference is to the Passover feast, during which John places the passion narrative, at which a lamb is slaughtered and eaten. This is a celebration and an echo of the original Passover, in which the Hebrew people smeared lamb’s blood on the frames of their doors so that the judgment upon Egypt’s firstborn would not strike the Hebrews (Exod. 12:115). The salvation that John envisions, however, is different from the exodus narrative in many respects. The enemy from which God’s people are saved is no longer a geopolitical oppressor but rather sin itself. Israel has now been expanded to contain the entire human race. The “lamb” has undergone quite a transformation and is now to be identified with the Messiah and even God himself. For NT believers, Jesus’ death and resurrection are a completion of the Passover. Rather than saving one people from one specific danger, God’s salvation reaches universal efficacy in Jesus Christ, taking away the sin of the world.
The other figure that feeds meaning into “Lamb of God” is the Suffering Servant of Isa. 53. Isaiah says, “He was oppressed and afflicted, yet he did not open his mouth; he was led like a lamb to the slaughter, and as a sheep before her shearers is silent, so he did not open his mouth” (53:7). John perhaps means to fulfill this verse specifically in John 19:9. Lambs were also a part of the cultic worship of Israel and were acceptable for more than one offering (e.g., Lev. 3:7; 4:32; 5:6).
A title applied to teachers and others in respected positions, literally meaning “my master.” By the NT era, the term was used in a more specific sense to refer to teachers of the Mosaic law.
In the NT, the title occurs only in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and John, and it is most commonly used to address Jesus (Mark 9:5; 11:21; 14:45; Matt. 26:25, 49). The title is used more widely in John’s Gospel by individuals such as Nathanael and Nicodemus, as well as the group of disciples (John 1:38, 49; 3:2; 4:31; 6:25; 9:2; 11:8). The title conveys the respect of pupil for master and indicates the nature of the relationship that Jesus had with his followers.
Others were also called “Rabbi,” including John the Baptist and some of the Pharisees (John 3:26; Matt. 23:7). Although the Pharisees considered the title an honor, Jesus instructed his disciples not to allow themselves to be addressed as “Rabbi” and to acknowledge only one teacher, Christ (Matt. 23:8, 10).
(1)One of the original twelve apostles (Matt. 10:2), also called “Peter.” Simon Peter was the brother of Andrew and a fisherman by trade (Matt. 4:18). (See also Peter.) (2)The Zealot, one of the original twelve apostles (Matt. 10:4). (3)One of the brothers of Jesus, along with James, Joseph, and Judas (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3). (4)A leper who lived in Bethany. In his house the precious bottle of ointment was poured upon Jesus in preparation for his burial (Matt. 26:6). (5)A man from Cyrene who carried Jesus’ cross on the way to crucifixion (Matt. 27:32). (6)A Pharisee who invited Jesus for a meal (Luke 7:40). Jesus was anointed with ointment in his house. He perhaps is the same individual as in Matt. 26:6. (7)The father of Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Jesus (John 6:71). (8)A sorcerer who believed the gospel and was baptized. However, he became enamored with the miraculous power of Philip and with the ability of the apostles to impart the Holy Spirit, and he offered them money to give him that ability (Acts 8:925). (9)A tanner with whom Peter stayed in Joppa before traveling to the house of Cornelius (Acts 9:43).
Rocks and stones were found naturally on the ground (Job 8:17; Ps. 91:12; Isa. 5:2; Mark 5:5; Luke 3:8). They could be heaped or piled up as a sign of disgrace (Josh. 7:26; 8:29; 2Sam. 18:17), as a marker or memorial (Gen. 31:4650), or as an altar (Exod. 20:25). A single rock or stone could also be used as a place marker (Gen. 28:22; 35:14, 20; 1Sam. 7:12), especially standing stones (Deut. 27:2–8; Josh. 4:3–9). Large stones could also be used to cover a well (Gen. 29:2–3) or to seal a cave or tomb, such as at the tombs of Lazarus (John 11:38–39) and of Jesus (Matt. 27:60; Mark 16:3–4).
Stone was used as a construction material, particularly for the temple (1Kings 5:15–18; 1Chron. 2:22; Ezra 5:8; Hag. 2:15; Mark 13:1–2). Stone was used in a building’s foundation and for the cornerstone or capstone (1Kings 5:17; Jer. 51:26; Isa. 28:16), as well as for the walls (Hab. 2:11). Psalm 118:22 refers metaphorically to the stone rejected by the builders becoming the cornerstone. In the NT, this is interpreted as referring to Jesus (Matt. 21:42; Mark 12:10; Luke 20:17; Acts 4:11; 1Pet. 2:7; cf. Eph. 2:20). Stone could also function as a writing material (Josh. 8:32), such as the tablets on which the Ten Commandments were inscribed (Exod. 24:12; Deut. 9:9–11; 1Kings 8:9; cf. 2Cor. 3:3, 7). Stone was also carved, although at Sinai the Israelites are instructed not to use cut or “dressed” stones when constructing an altar (Exod. 20:25; cf. Josh. 8:31). The phrase “carved stone” refers specifically to idols, since stone was one material used for crafting false gods (Lev. 26:1; cf. Deut. 4:28; 29:17; 2Kings 19:18; Isa. 37:19; Rev. 9:20); the term “stone” itself can therefore be used to refer to an idol, especially in the phrase “wood and stone” (Jer. 3:9; Ezek. 20:32).
Stones were used as a weapon or instrument of destruction, whether thrown by hand (Num. 35:17, 23) or flung with a sling (Judg. 20:16; 1Sam. 17:40, 49–50; Prov. 26:8). The verb “to stone” refers to the throwing of stones at an individual, which typically functioned as an official manner of execution (Exod. 19:13; 21:28–29; Deut. 21:20–21; 1Kings 21:13–15; John 8:5; Acts 7:58–59), although it was at times the action of an angry crowd (Exod. 17:4; 1Kings 12:18; cf. John 8:59).
The phrases “precious stones” and “costly stones” refer to gems (2Sam. 12:30; Esther 1:6; Isa. 54:12; 1Cor. 3:12). Gems were used as a display of wealth or honor (1Kings 10:2, 10–11; 2Chron. 32:27; Ezek. 27:22) and for decoration (1Chron. 3:6; Rev. 17:4; 18:16). The two stones on the high priest’s ephod and the twelve precious stones on his breastpiece represented the twelve tribes (Exod. 25:7; 28:9–12, 17–21), a symbolism echoed in the twelve types of precious stones adorning the foundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20).
Rocks and stones are used often in metaphors or similes (e.g., hard as a rock, still as a stone). They can represent something that is common (1Kings 10:27; Job 5:23; Matt. 3:9; 4:3), strong (Job 6:12), hard (Job 38:30; 41:24), heavy (Exod. 15:5; Prov. 27:3), motionless (Exod. 15:16), or immovable (Zech. 12:3). A “heart of stone” describes coldheartedness (Ezek. 11:19; 36:26). A “stumbling stone,” which is literally a stone that causes one to stumble (Isa. 8:14), is used in the NT as a metaphor for an obstacle to faith in Jesus (Rom. 9:32–33; 1Pet. 2:8).
Direct Matches
One of the twelve apostles and brother of Peter, his morefamous counterpart. Andrew came from Bethsaida in Galilee (John1:44), though he lived and worked with Peter in Capernaum as afisherman (Matt. 4:18). At first a disciple of John the Baptist, he,with an unnamed disciple (possibly John), transferred allegiance toJesus (John 1:35–40). His first recorded act was to bring hisbrother to Jesus (1:41–42). Subsequently, he was called byJesus to become a permanent follower (Matt. 4:19) and later wasappointed as an apostle (Matt. 10:2).
Simon Peter is the best-known and the most colorful of Jesus’twelve disciples. The name “Peter” means “rock”in Greek. In some biblical texts, he is also called “Cephas,”which is the Aramaic word for “rock” (see esp. John1:42). Despite the ups and downs of Peter’s spiritual life, Godwas able to use him as the foundational apostle for the establishmentof the NT church. Peter first met Jesus immediately after Jesus’baptism, when Peter’s brother, Andrew, heard John the Baptist’sidentification of Jesus as the Lamb of God (John 1:35). In classicmissionary style, “the first thing Andrew did was to find hisbrother Simon and tell him, ‘We have found the Messiah’ ”(John 1:41). Peter’s official call to ministry took placelater, when he was fishing on the Sea of Galilee and Jesus issued thewell-known invitation “Come, follow me, ... and Iwill send you out to fish for people” (Matt. 4:19).
Peterwas the chief spokesman for the disciples at Caesarea Philippi whenJesus asked them, “Who do people say the Son of Man is?”(Matt. 16:13). Peter responded, “You are the Messiah, the Sonof the living God,” an insight given him by God the Father(16:16–17). Jesus promised him, “I tell you that you arePeter [petros], and on this rock [petra] I will build my church, andthe gates of Hades will not overcome it” (16:18). Yet Peteralmost immediately became a “stumbling block” to Jesuswhen he chided Jesus for saying that he must go to Jerusalem andsuffer many things and be killed (16:21–22). Another majorfailure by Peter came with his threefold denial of Jesus after Jesushad warned him, “This very night, before the rooster crows, youwill disown me three times” (Matt. 26:34). Fortunately, therewere tears of repentance, and Peter was forgiven and restored afterJesus’ threefold question (“Do you love me?” [John21:15–19]).
Jesus’death and resurrection, as well as the giving of the Holy Spirit onthe day of Pentecost, had stabilizing effects on Peter. After Jesus’ascension, Peter exercised primary leadership among the otherdisciples during the upper room prayer meetings and the choosing ofthe replacement for Judas (Acts 1). Peter clearly was the publicspokesman for the apostles on the day of Pentecost and a key playerin the establishment of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 2–5), inreceiving the first Samaritan converts (Acts 8:14–25), and inreceiving Cornelius as the first Gentile convert (Acts 10–11).Following Peter’s miraculous deliverance from prison in Acts12, he essentially disappears from recorded history. By the time ofthe Jerusalem council (Acts 15), Peter reappeared briefly, but bythis time he had been replaced by James as the leader of theJerusalem church. Peter apparently continued to live as a missionary(1Cor. 9:5), specifically “to the circumcised”(Gal. 2:7–8), for the rest of his life. Yet Peter was stillhuman, and on one occasion Paul gave him a stinging rebuke (Gal.2:11–21).
Duringhis travels, Peter undoubtedly visited the recipients of his laterletter 1Peter (and possibly 2Peter) in north central AsiaMinor (the regions of “Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia andBithynia” [1Pet. 1:1]), possibly Corinth (1Cor.1:12; 3:22), and, at least by the end of his life, Rome itself.According to tradition, he was put to death by Nero between AD 64 and68, apparently by being crucified upside down (cf. John 21:18–19).Peter’s life is a vivid illustration of the Christian’sfight for faith, God’s gracious provision, and Jesus’intercession on his behalf (“I have prayed for you, Simon, thatyour faith may not fail” [Luke 22:32]).
The Greek term for “disciple,” mathētēs,means “student.” Like other rabbis and religious figuresof the time, Jesus taught a group of such students (Matt. 9:14;22:16; Mark 2:16; John 1:35; 4:1). The forms of address that Jesus’disciples used for him reflect the nature of the relationship:“rabbi” (Mark 9:5), “teacher” (Mark 9:38),and “master” (Luke 5:5). In addition to receivinginstruction from Jesus, his disciples took care of his physical needs(Matt. 21:1; John 4:8), ate with him (Matt. 9:10; 26:18), performedexorcisms and healings (Matt. 10:1; Luke 10:17), baptized (John 4:2),controlled access to Jesus (Matt. 19:13; John 12:21), and traveledwith him (Luke 8:1; John 2:12). On one occasion Jesus visited thehouse of Peter and healed Peter’s mother-in-law (Matt. 8:14),which suggests that although the Gospels do not generally depict theprivate lives of Jesus or his disciples apart from their publicministry, the relationship among these men did not prevent thedisciples from maintaining their own homes, families, and, probably,occupations.
Inthe Gospels Jesus is depicted with variously sized groups ofdisciples and followers. A prominent tradition in the Gospelsindicates that there was an inner group of twelve (Matt. 10:1; 26:20;Mark 3:14; 4:10; 6:7; John 6:70), each of whom is known by name. Thisis the group most traditionally understood as “the disciples”of Jesus. As an authority, the group of twelve persisted beyond theascension of Jesus (Acts 6:2). Following the death of Judas Iscariot,Matthias was chosen to take his place among the Twelve (Acts 1:26).Other passages specify a group of seventy or seventy-two (Luke 10:1,16), and often the number of disciples is indeterminate. Severalpassages name disciples beyond the Twelve (Matt. 27:57; Luke 24:18;Acts 9:10; 9:36; 16:1; 21:16), and some later authors attempted tolist the names of the seventy by drawing names from the book of Acts,the Epistles, and other early Christian traditions (e.g., thethirteenth-century Syriac compilation The Book of the Bee). The bookof Acts often refers to any follower of Christ as “disciple,”including those in cities throughout the Roman Empire.
TheGospels tend to present Jesus as a charismatic teacher who couldattract adherents with little overt persuasion. The calling ofseveral disciples is narrated, including that of the brothers SimonPeter and Andrew, the brothers James and John the sons of Zebedee(Mark 1:16–20; John 1:40–41), Philip and Nathanael (John1:44–45), and Matthew/Levi (Mark 2:13–17 pars.). TheGospel of John presents Andrew as a former disciple of John theBaptist.
TheTwelve
Eachof the Synoptic Gospels has a list of the Twelve (Matt. 10:1–4;Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16; cf. the list of eleven inActs 1:13), and the Gospel of John mentions “the Twelve”several times without providing a list. With some slightharmonizations, it is possible to come up with a single list oftwelve disciples based on the three Synoptic lists.
(1)Allthree Synoptic Gospels agree in placing Simon Peter first in thelist. (2)His brother Andrew is second, though Mark has placedAndrew farther down the list and does not identify him as Peter’sbrother. (3)James the son of Zebedee and (4)John thebrother of James are next. Mark adds that the two were also named“Boanerges,” meaning “sons of thunder.” Theplacement of Peter, James, and John at the head of the listcorresponds with the prominence of these three disciples in the storyof Jesus’ arrest at Gethsemane, where these three were present(Matt. 26:37// Mark 14:33). Perhaps the order of Mark’slist reflects the prestige of these three disciples, with Matthew andLuke bringing Andrew to the head of the list not because of anyparticular importance but so that he is listed with his brotherPeter.
Thelists continue with (5)Philip, (6)Bartholomew, and(7)Matthew, further identified in Matt. 10:3 as a “taxcollector.” The calling of Matthew is narrated in Matt. 9:9–13and also in Mark 2:13–17; Luke 5:27–32, where Matthew iscalled “Levi.” (8)Thomas is next (Matt. 10:3 listsThomas before Matthew; in John 20:24 he is also called “Didymus”),followed by (9)James the son of Alphaeus (Mark 2:14 also callsLevi “son of Alphaeus”), so named to avoid confusion withJames the son of Zebedee. (10)Simon the Cananaean (Matt. 10:4;Mark 3:18 NRSV) or Zealot (Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13) is so designated toavoid confusion with Simon Peter. The precise meaning of the term“Cananaean” is uncertain (see Cananaean). (11)Thaddaeus(who precedes Simon the Cananaean in Matthew and Mark) probablyshould be identified with the eleventh disciple in Luke’s list,Judas the son of James. The names of Thaddaeus and Judas son of Jamesrepresent the greatest single discrepancy among the three lists, butit may be mitigated somewhat by the fact that some manuscriptsidentify “Thaddaeus” as a surname (though they give thisdisciple’s other name as “Lebbaeus,” not “Judas”).All three lists agree in listing (12)Judas Iscariot as the lastdisciple in the list, and all note that he betrayed Jesus or became atraitor. The fact that Judas Iscariot bears a second name(“Iscariot”) may suggest that there was another Judasamong the Twelve from whom it was necessary to distinguish him, as inthe case of the two Simons and the two Jameses. This observationlends some weight to the notion that Thaddaeus was also named“Judas.”
TheDisciples as Apostles
Atvarious points in his ministry Jesus sent out his disciples to preachand perform miracles, hence they are also referred to as “apostles”(i.e., emissaries). The connection between these two terms is madeclear in Luke 6:13: “When morning came, he called his disciplesto him and chose twelve of them, whom he also designated apostles.”In the NT Epistles the title “apostle” is applied toseveral individuals who were not among Jesus’ twelve disciples,most notably Paul. In sum, both “disciple” and “apostle”have narrow and broad meanings in the NT, though there is substantialcontinuity between “the Twelve” disciples or apostles ofJesus and the narrow definition of “apostle” in the earlychapters of Acts.
TheLater Careers of the Disciples
Afterhis resurrection, Jesus told his disciples (“the apostles hehad chosen” [Acts 1:2]) that they would be his witnesses “inJerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of theearth” (Acts 1:8). Stories about the subsequent careers of theTwelve exist in both the NT and other early Christian sources. Thefirst half of Acts largely focuses on the career of Simon Peter,before attention shifts to the career of Paul in the eastern RomanEmpire. Extracanonical books and local legends trace the latercareers of Jesus’ twelve disciples, placing them in Rome(Peter), Scythia (Andrew), Spain (James), Ephesus (John), Phrygia(Philip), Armenia (Bartholomew and Thaddaeus), India (Thomas),Ethiopia (Matthew), and North Africa (Simon the Cananaean). Piouslocal traditions attribute martyrdom to a number of the Twelve,though in the NT we know only of the deaths of Judas Iscariot (Matt.27:3–10; Acts 1:16–20) and James the son of Zebedee (Acts12:1–2).
The precise and consistent division of time into hours,minutes, and seconds is a feature of modern life first made possibleby the widespread use of mechanical clocks in the late Middle Ages.Biblical texts reflect an earlier situation in which timekeeping wasprimarily a matter of celestial observation. NT references to “hours”fall into two broad categories: first, timekeeping by means ofnumbered hours; and second, the use of the word “hour” inthe sense of “moment,” a short, indefinite period of time(e.g., Matt. 8:13; John 16:2), as the hour was the basic unit ofmeasurable time (see Rev. 9:15).
Jesusobserved that the day was divided into twelve hours (John 11:9).Jesus was crucified at the third hour (9a.m.); it was dark fromthe sixth hour (noon) until the ninth hour (3p.m.), at whichpoint Jesus died (Matt. 27:45–46; Mark 15:25, 33; Luke 23:44;John 19:14). In one parable, a landowner hired workers at the third,sixth, ninth, and eleventh hours (Matt. 20:3–12). The book ofActs also reports events occurring at the third, sixth, and ninthhours (Acts 2:15; 3:1; 10:3, 9). Such passages suggest that actualreckoning was often less precise even than the twelve-hour schemepermitted, and that the day was more roughly divided into four partsof three hours each. The Gospel of John provides the most precisetime indications, mentioning the tenth hour (4p.m. [John 1:39])and the seventh hour (1p.m. [John 4:52]). One text names an“hour of dinner” (Luke 14:17; see also 22:14), andanother indicates that the ninth hour (3p.m.) was an “hourof prayer” (Acts 3:1; see also 10:30).
Thenight was divided into three or four “watches,” of whichthe NT mentions the second, third (Luke 12:38), and fourth (Matt.14:25; Mark 6:48). The OT mentions nocturnal watches (Pss. 63:6;90:4; 119:148; Lam. 2:19), including in military contexts (Exod.14:24; Judg. 7:19; 1Sam. 11:11), from which the term with thesense of standing guard is derived. The OT watches are not numbered,but are referred to as “middle” or “last.”The system of watches did not preclude the counting of hours duringthe night, as in Acts 23:23, which refers to the third hour of thenight (9p.m.).
Inaddition to the numbered hours of the day, the hour is also used tomeasure the passage of time, as in Acts 19:34, where a crowd riotsfor two hours (see also Matt. 26:40; Luke 22:59; Acts 5:7; Rev.17:12). One text refers to a half-hour period (Rev. 8:1).
Numeroustexts refer to hours of future trial (Matt. 10:19; Rev. 3:10),including an eschatological or “last hour” (e.g., Mark13:32; 1John 2:18). The suffering and death of Jesus is alsoreferred to as his “hour” (e.g., Mark 14:35; 14:41; John12:23, 27).
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesusfollowers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christembodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in humanhistory.
Introduction
Name.Early Christians combined the name “Jesus” with the title“Christ” (Acts 5:42; NIV: “Messiah”). Thename “Jesus,” from the Hebrew Yehoshua or Yeshua, was acommon male name in first-century Judaism. The title “Christ”is from the Greek christos, a translation of the Hebrew mashiakh(“anointed one, messiah”). Christians eventually werenamed after Jesus’ title (Acts 11:26). During the ministry ofJesus, Peter was the first disciple to recognize Jesus as the Messiah(Matt. 16:16; Mark 9:29; Luke 9:20).
Sources.From the viewpoint of Christianity, the life and ministry of Jesusconstitute the turning point in human history. From a historicalperspective, ample early source materials would be expected. Indeed,both Christian and non-Christian first-century and earlysecond-century literary sources are extant, but they are few innumber. In part, this low incidence is due to society’s initialresistance to the Jesus followers’ movement. The ancient Romanhistorian Tacitus called Christianity “a superstition,”since its beliefs did not fit with the culture’s prevailingworldview and thus were considered antisocial. Early literary sourcestherefore are either in-group documents or allusions in non-Christiansources.
TheNT Gospels are the principal sources for the life and ministry ofJesus. They consist of Matthew, Mark, Luke (the Synoptic Gospels),and John. Most scholars adhere to the so-called Four SourceHypothesis. In this theory, Mark was written first and was used as asource by Matthew and Luke, who also used the sayings source Q (fromGerman Quelle, meaning “source”) as well as their ownindividual sources M (Matthew) and L (Luke). John used additionalsources.
Theearly church tried to put together singular accounts, so-calledGospel harmonies, of the life of Jesus. The Gospel of the Ebionitesrepresents one such attempt based on the Synoptic Gospels. Anotherharmony, the Diatessaron, based on all four Gospels, was producedaround AD 170 by Tatian. Additional source materials concerning thelife of Christ are provided in the NT in texts such as Acts, thePauline Epistles, the General Epistles, and the Revelation of John.Paul wrote to the Galatians, “But when the time had fully come,God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under law” (Gal. 4:4).The first narrative about Jesus by the Christian community was apassion narrative, the account of his death and resurrection. Thefirst extant references to this tradition are found in Paul’sletters (1Cor. 2:2; Gal. 3:1). The resurrection was recognizedfrom the beginning as the cornerstone of the Christian faith (1Cor.15:13–14).
Amongnon-Christian sources, the earliest reference to Jesus is found in aletter written circa AD 112 by Pliny the Younger, the Roman governorof Bithynia-Pontus (Ep. 10.96). The Roman historian Tacitus mentionsChristians and Jesus around AD 115 in his famous work about thehistory of Rome (Ann. 15.44). Another Roman historian, Suetonius,wrote around the same time concerning unrest among the Jews in Romebecause of a certain “Chrestos” (Claud. 25.4). Somescholars conclude that “Chrestos” is a misspelling of“Christos,” a reference to Jesus.
TheJewish author Josephus (first century AD) mentions Jesus in a storyabout the Jewish high priest Ananus and James the brother of Jesus(Ant. 20.200). A controversial reference to Jesus appears in adifferent part of the same work, where Josephus affirms that Jesus isthe Messiah and that he rose from the dead (Ant. 18.63–64). Themajority of scholars consider this passage to be authentic butheavily edited by later Christian copyists. Another Jewish source,the Talmud, also mentions Jesus in several places, but thesereferences are very late and of little historical value.
NoncanonicalGospels that mention Jesus include, for example, the Infancy Gospelof Thomas, the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Peter, the Gospel ofJames, the Gospel of Judas Iscariot, the Gospel of the Hebrews, theEgerton Gospel, and the Gospel of Judas. Although some of these maycontain an occasional authentic saying or event, for the most partthey are late and unreliable.
Jesus’Life
Birthand childhood. TheGospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehemduring the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesuswas probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’sdeath (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of avirginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18;Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governorQuirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place inBethlehem (2:1–5). Both the census and the governorship at thetime of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars.Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to eitherconfirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must bedetermined on the basis of one’s view regarding the generalreliability of the Gospel tradition.
Onthe eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keepingwith the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus”(Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home ofhis parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel ofLuke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth instrength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke alsocontains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Jesuswas born in a lower socioeconomic setting. His parents offered atemple sacrifice appropriate for those who could not afford tosacrifice a sheep (Luke 2:22–24; cf. Lev. 12:8). Joseph, Jesus’earthly father, was a carpenter or an artisan in wood, stone, ormetal (Matt. 13:55). From a geographical perspective, Nazareth wasnot a prominent place for settling, since it lacked fertile ground.Jesus’ disciple Nathanael expressed an apparently commonfirst-century sentiment concerning Nazareth: “Nazareth! Cananything good come from there?” (John 1:46).
Jesuswas also born in a context of scandal. Questions of illegitimacy weresurely raised, since his mother Mary was discovered to be pregnantbefore her marriage to Joseph. According to Matthew, only theintervention of an angel convinced Joseph not to break his betrothal(Matt. 1:18–24). Jesus’ birth took place in Bethlehem,far from his parents’ home in Nazareth. According to kinshiphospitality customs, Joseph and Mary would have expected to stay withdistant relatives in Bethlehem. It is likely that they were unwelcomebecause of Jesus’ status as an illegitimate child; thus Maryhad to give birth elsewhere and place the infant Jesus in a feedingtrough (Luke 2:7). A similar response was seen years later inNazareth when Jesus was identified as “Mary’s son”(Mark 6:3) rather than through his paternal line, thereby shaming himas one who was born an illegitimate child. Jesus was likewiserejected at the end of his life as the crowds cried, “Crucifyhim!” (Matt. 27:22–23; Mark 15:13–14; Luke 23:21;John 19:6, 15). When Jesus was arrested, most of his followers fled(Matt. 26:56; Mark 14:50–52), and a core disciple, Peter,vehemently denied knowing him (Matt. 26:69–74; Mark 14:66–71;Luke 22:55–60; John 18:15–17, 25–27). His ownsiblings did not believe in him (John 7:5) and were evidently ashamedof his fate, since from the cross Jesus placed the care of his motherinto the hands of “the disciple whom he loved” (19:26–27)rather than the next brother in line, as was customary.
Baptism,temptation, and start of ministry.After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring tohim as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22).Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instantministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into thewilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11;Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that thetemptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Lukeidentify three specific temptations by the devil, though their orderfor the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesuswas tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine interventionafter jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’skingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation,quoting Scripture in response.
Matthewand Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum inGalilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13;Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirtyyears of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity orperhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of theLevites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning ofJesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples andthe sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Jesus’public ministry: chronology.Jesus’ ministry started in Galilee, probably around AD 27/28,and ended with his death around AD 30 in Jerusalem. The temple hadbeen forty-six years in construction (generally interpreted as thetemple itself and the wider temple complex) when Jesus drove out themoney changers (John 2:20). According to Josephus, the rebuilding andexpansion of the second temple had started in 20/19 BC, during theeighteenth year of Herod’s reign (Ant. 15.380). The ministry ofJohn the Baptist had commenced in the fifteenth year of Tiberius(Luke 3:1–2), who had become a coregent in AD 11/12. From thesedates of the start of the temple building and the correlation of thereign of Tiberius to John the Baptist’s ministry, the onset ofJesus’ ministry can probably be dated to AD 27/28.
TheGospel of John mentions three Passovers and another unnamed feast inJohn 5:1. The length of Jesus’ ministry thus extended overthree or four Passovers, equaling about three or three and a halfyears. Passover, which took place on the fifteenth of Nisan, came ona Friday in AD 30 and 33. The year of Jesus’ death wastherefore probably AD 30.
Jesus’ministry years may be divided broadly into his Galilean and hisJudean ministries. The Synoptic Gospels describe the ministry inGalilee from various angles but converge again as Jesus enters Judea.
Galileanministry.The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and aroundGalilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that thekingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment ofprophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ firstteaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30);the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for hiscalling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection andsuffering.
AllGospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in hisGalilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioningof the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers isrecorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministryis the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, inparticular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synopticsfocus on healings and exorcisms.
DuringJesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with hisidentity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority(Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family(3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner ofBeelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesustold parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growingkingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humblebeginnings (4:1–32).
TheSynoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful.No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority orability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized manydemons (Mark 5:1–13), raised the dead (Mark 5:35–42), fedfive thousand (Mark 6:30–44), and walked on water (Mark6:48–49).
Inthe later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew andtraveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are notwritten with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns toGalilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey toJerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fearresolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee,where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ discipleswith lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed thePharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents(7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demandinga sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, whoconfessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus didprovide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesuswithdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician womanrequested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sentonly to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans hadlong resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality thatallotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere“crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Eventhe dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,”Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-muteman in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’sconfession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The citywas the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judeanministry.Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry ashe resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually ledto his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem intothree phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27).The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of thejourney. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, andthe demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem(Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45;Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journeytoward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvationand judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase ofthe journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are themain themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Socialconflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposteinteractions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel(Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomicfeathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who hadlittle value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16;Luke 18:15–17).
PassionWeek, death, and resurrection. Eachof the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with thecrowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Lukedescribes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during whichJesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
InJerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17).Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because thewhole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “beganlooking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segmentof Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions(12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation(12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s owndestruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, JudasIscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’arrest (14:10–11).
Atthe Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a newcovenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29;Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned thedisciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and laterhe prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agonyand submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42;Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial,crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15;Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18).Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission bymaking disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8)and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return(Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
TheIdentity of Jesus Christ
Variousaspects of Jesus’ identity are stressed in the four NT Gospels,depending on their target audiences. In the Gospels the witnesses toJesus’ ministry are portrayed as constantly questioning andexamining his identity (Matt. 11:2–5; 12:24; 26:63; 27:11; Mark3:22; 8:11; 11:28; 14:61; Luke 7:18–20; 11:15; 22:67, 70;23:39; John 7:20, 25–27; 18:37). Only beings of the spiritualrealm are certain of his divinity (Mark 1:34; 3:11; Luke 4:41). AtJesus’ baptism, God referred to him as his Son, whom he loved(Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Likewise, when Jesus wastransfigured in the presence of Peter, James, and John, a voiceaffirmed, “This is my Son, whom I love” (Matt. 17:5; Mark9:7). At the moment of his death, the questioning of Jesus’identity culminated in a confession by a Roman centurion and otherguards: “Surely he was the Son of God!” (Matt. 27:54; cf.Mark 15:39).
Miracleworker.In the first-century setting, folk healers and miracle workers werepart of the fabric of society. Jesus, however, performed signs andmiracles in order to demonstrate the authority of the kingdom of Godover various realms: disease, illness, the spiritual world, nature,and even future events. Especially in the Gospel of John, Jesus’signs and miracles are used to show his authority and thus hisidentity.
Nochallenge superseded Jesus’ authority. Among his ample miraclesand signs, he changed water into wine (John 2:7–9), calmed astorm in the sea (Matt. 8:23–27; Mark 4:35–39; Luke8:22–25), exorcized demons (Matt. 9:32–34; Mark 5:1–13;Luke 9:42–43), healed the sick (Mark 1:40–44), raised thedead (Matt. 9:23–25; Mark 5:35–42; Luke 7:1–16;8:49–54; John 11:17, 38–44), performed miraculousfeedings (Matt. 14:17–21; 15:34–38; Mark 6:30–44;8:5–9; Luke 9:10–17; John 6:8–13), and walked onwater (Matt. 14:25–26; Mark 6:48–49; John 6:19).
ThePharisees requested miracles as evidence of his authority (Mark8:11–12). Jesus refused, claiming that a wicked and adulterousgeneration asks for a miraculous sign (Matt. 12:38–39; 16:1–4).The only sign that he would give was the sign of Jonah—hisdeath and resurrection three days later—a personal sacrifice,taking upon himself the judgment of the world (Matt. 12:39–41).
Rabbi/teacher.Jesus’ teaching style was similar to other first-century rabbisor Pharisees (Mark 9:5; 10:51; John 1:38; 3:2). What distinguishedhim was that he spoke with great personal authority (Matt. 5:22, 28,32, 39, 44; Mark 1:22). Like other rabbis of his day, Jesus gathereddisciples. He called these men to observe his lifestyle and to joinhim in his ministry of teaching, healing, and exorcism (Matt. 10:1–4;Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16).
Jesusused a variety of teaching methods. He frequently spoke in parables(Matt. 6:24; 13:24–52; 18:10–14, 23–35;21:28–22:14; 24:32–36, 45–51; 25:14–30; Mark4:1–34; 12:1–12; 13:28–34; Luke 8:4–18;12:41–46; 13:18–21; 14:15–24; 15:1–16:15,19–31; 18:1–14; 19:11–27; 20:9–19; 21:29–33),used figures of speech (John 10:9), hyperbole (Matt. 19:24; Mark10:25; Luke 18:25), argumentation (Matt. 26:11), object lessons(Matt. 24:32), frequent repetition (Matt. 13:44–47; Luke13:18–21), practical examples, and personal guidance.
Majorthemes in Jesus’ teaching include the kingdom of God, the costof discipleship, internal righteousness, the end of the age, hisidentity, his mission, and his approaching death. In his teachings,observance of Torah was given new context and meaning because God’skingdom had “come near” (Matt. 3:2). Jesus had come tofulfill the law (Matt. 5:17).
Jesus’teaching ministry often took place amid social conflict. Theseconflicts were couched in so-called challenge-riposte interactions inwhich the honor status of those involved was at stake. Jesus usedthese interactions as teachable moments. When questioned, Jesus gavereplies that reveal omniscience or intimate knowledge of God’swill, especially in the Gospel of John. In the Synoptic Gospels,Jesus’ answers are both ethical and practical in nature. TheSynoptics portray Jesus as challenged repeatedly with accusations ofviolating customs specified in the Jewish law. Jesus’ answersto such accusations often echoed the essence of 1Sam. 15:22,“To obey is better than sacrifice,” phrased by Jesus as“I desire mercy, not sacrifice” (Matt. 9:13; 12:7). Anoverall “better than” ethic was common in Jesus’public teaching.
TheSermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7) contains a “better than”ethic in which internal obedience is better than mere outwardobedience. For example, Jesus said that anger without cause is equalto murder (Matt. 5:21–22), that looking at a woman lustfullyamounts to adultery (Matt. 5:28), and that instead of revengingwrongs one must reciprocate with love (Matt. 5:38–48). Jesusvalued compassion above traditions and customs, even those containedwithin the OT law. He desired internal obedience above the letter ofthe law.
Jesus’teachings found their authority in the reality of God’simminent kingdom (Matt. 3:2; 10:7; Mark 1:15; Luke 10:9),necessitating repentance (Matt. 3:2), belief (Mark 1:15), dependence(Matt. 18:3–5; Mark 10:15), and loyalty to a new community—thefamily of Jesus followers (Mark 3:34; 10:29–30). Jesus urged,“Seek first [God’s] kingdom and his righteousness”(Matt. 6:33). Preaching with such urgency was common among propheticteachers of the intertestamental period. Jesus, however, had his owngrounds for urgency. He held that God deeply valued all humans (Matt.10:31) and would bring judgment swiftly (Matt. 25:31–46).
Examplesof a “greater good” ethic in the Synoptics include theoccasions when Jesus ate with sinners (Mark 2:16–17). Jesusused an aphorism in response to accusations about his associationswith sinners, saying, “It is not the healthy who need a doctor,but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners”(Mark 2:17). He advocated harvesting and healing on the Sabbath (Mark2:23–28; 3:1–6), and when he was accused of breaking thelaw, he pointed to an OT exception (1Sam. 21:1–6) todeclare compassion appropriate for the Sabbath. Jesus also appliedthe “greater good” ethic in the case of divorce, sincewomen suffered the societal stigma of adultery and commonly becameoutcasts following divorce (Matt. 19:8–9; Mark 10:5–9).
Jesus’kingdom teachings were simultaneously spiritual, ethical, andeschatological in application. The teachings were aimed at internaltransformation (Matt. 5:3–9; 18:3; Mark 10:15) and spurring onlove (Matt. 5:44; 7:21). The Spirit of the Lord had called Jesus tobless the hurting ones as they aspired to a godly character. Jesustaught, “Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father isperfect” (Matt. 5:48), and “Be merciful, just as yourFather is merciful” (Luke 6:36). The “blessed” onesin Jesus’ teachings are poor of spirit, peace driven, mournful,and hungry for righteousness, consumed with emulating godlycharacter.
Somescholars believe that Jesus promoted an “interim ethic”for the kingdom, intended only for a short period prior to the end oftime. However, he was explicit regarding the longevity of histeachings: “Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words willnever pass away” (Matt. 24:35; Luke 16:17).
Messiah.The concept of an anointed one, a messiah, who would restore theglories of David’s kingdom and bring political stability wascommon in Jewish expectation. Both before and after the Babyloniancaptivity, many Jews longed for one who would bring peace andprotection. Israel’s prophets had spoken of a coming deliverer,one who would restore David’s kingdom and reign in justice andrighteousness (2Sam. 7:11–16; Isa. 9:1–7; 11:1–16;Jer. 23:5–6; 33:15–16; Ezek. 37:25; Dan. 2:44; Mic. 5:2;Zech. 9:9). Isaiah’s description of the servant (Isa. 53) whosesuffering healed the nation provided a slightly different angle ofexpectation in terms of a deliverer.
Jesus’authority and popularity as a miracle worker called up messianicimages in first-century Jewish minds. On several occasions hearerscalled him “Son of David,” hoping for the Messiah (Matt.12:23; 21:9). Simon Peter was the first follower who confessed Jesusas the Christ, the “Messiah” (Matt. 16:16; Mark 8:29). Inline with Isaiah’s model of the Suffering Servant, Jesusfocused not on political ends but rather on spiritual regenerationthrough his own sacrificial death (Mark 10:45).
Eschatologicalprophet.Many scholars claim that Jesus is best understood as a Jewishapocalypticist, an eschatological prophet who expected God tointervene in history, destroy the wicked, and bring in the kingdom ofGod. Central in this understanding are Jesus’ propheciesconcerning the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem (Matt. 24:1–2,15–22; Mark 13:1; Luke 21:5–24; John 2:19; Acts 6:14). Inaddition, it is noted that Jesus had twelve disciples, representativeof the twelve tribes of Israel (Matt. 19:2–28; Luke 22:23–30).Certain of Jesus’ parables, those with apocalyptic images ofcoming judgment, present Jesus as an eschatological prophet (Matt.24:45–25:30; Luke 12:41–46; 19:11–27).
SufferingSon of God.Jesus’ first recorded teaching in a synagogue in Nazareth wasparadigmatic (Luke 4:16–21). He attributed the reading, Isa.61:1–2, to his personal calling to serve, and in doing so herevealed a trajectory of suffering. The Gospel of Mark likewise aptlyportrays Jesus as the suffering Son of God. Jesus’ ownteachings incorporated his upcoming suffering (Mark 8:31; 9:12–13,31; 10:33–34). He summarized his mission by declaring, “TheSon of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give hislife as a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45). His earthly careerended with a trial in Jerusalem consisting of both Roman and Jewishcomponents (Matt. 26:57–68; 27:1–31; Mark 14:53–65;15:1–20; Luke 22:54–23:25; John 18:19–24;18:28–19:16). He was insulted, scourged, mocked, and crucified.
Jesus’suffering culminated in his humiliating death by crucifixion (Matt.27:33–50; Mark 15:22–37; Luke 23:33–46; John19:16–30). Crucifixion was a death of unimaginable horror,bringing shame and humiliation to the victim and his family. Anyonehanging on a tree was considered cursed (Deut. 21:23; Gal. 3:13).Thus, especially in a Jewish society, anyone associated with acrucified person bore the shame of following one who was executed asa lowly slave and left as a cursed corpse. The apostle Paul referredto this shame of the cross when he stated, “I am not ashamed ofthe gospel” (Rom. 1:16).
ExaltedLord.Jesus had prophesied that he would rise again (Matt. 16:21; 17:9, 23;20:19; 27:63; Mark 8:31; 9:9, 31; 10:34; Luke 9:22; 18:33; 24:7, 46).The testimony of the Synoptics is that the resurrection of JesusChrist indeed occurred on the third day, Christ having died on Friday(Mark 15:42–45; Luke 23:52–54; John 19:30–33) andrisen again on Sunday (Matt. 28:1–7; Mark 16:2–7; Luke24:1–7; John 20:1–16). The resurrected Jesus waswitnessed by the women (Matt. 28:8–9), the eleven disciples(Matt. 28:16–17; Luke 24:36–43), and travelers on theroad to Emmaus (Luke 24:31–32). According to Paul, he appearedto as many as five hundred others (1Cor. 15:6). He appeared inbodily form, spoke, showed his scars, and ate (Luke 24:39–43;John 20:27; Acts 1:4). After forty postresurrection days, Jesusascended into the heavenly realm (Acts 1:9).
Asmuch as Jesus’ death was the epitome of shame, his victory overdeath was his ultimate exaltation (Phil. 2:5–11). At Pentecost,Peter proclaimed that in the resurrection God fulfilled OT promises(Ps. 16:10) by raising his Son from the grave (Acts 2:30–31).Furthermore, Christ provided freedom from the law through hisresurrection (Rom. 5:13–14), God’s approval of his lifeand work (Phil. 2:8–9), and God’s designation of him asLord over all the earth, the living and the dead (Acts 17:30–31;Phil. 2:10; Heb. 1:3), and over all his enemies (Eph. 1:20–23).
Jesus’exaltation commenced the beginning of forgiveness and justification(Luke 24:46–47; Acts 13:30–39; Rom. 4:25) and hisintercession for the people of God (Rom. 8:34). His ascensionsignaled the coming of the Holy Spirit as comforter and teacher (John14:26; Acts 2:33) and was accompanied by the promise of his return inglory (Luke 24:51), at which time he will render judgment (Matt.19:28; 24:31; Rev. 20:11–15) and establish his eternal kingdom(1Cor. 15:24; 2Tim. 4:1; Rev. 11:15; 22:5).
Jesus’Purpose and Community
Inthe Gospel of Matthew, Jesus is the long-awaited Messiah, whopreaches the good news of the kingdom, urging people to repent(4:17–23). Repentance and belief allow one to enter thekingdom. The call into the kingdom is a call into a new covenant, onemade in Jesus’ blood (26:28).
Inthe prologue to the Gospel of Mark, the narrator reveals the identityof Jesus (1:1). Jesus is presented as the one who brings good tidingsof salvation (cf. Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1). The centrality of thegospel, the good news (Mark 1:14–15), is evident.
Lukelikewise presents the preaching of the good news as a main purpose ofJesus’ ministry (4:43). The content of this good news is thekingdom of God (4:43; 8:1; 16:16). When the disciples of John theBaptist asked Jesus if he was the one who was to come (7:20), Jesusanswered, “Go back and report to John what you have seen andheard: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosyare cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good newsis proclaimed to the poor” (7:22). The kingdom of God, aspresented in Luke, brings freedom for the prisoners, recovery ofsight for the blind, and release for the oppressed (4:18). Jesus’healings and exorcisms announce the coming kingdom of God alreadypresent in the ministry of Jesus (4:40–44; 6:18–20;8:1–2; 9:2; 10:8–9).
Inthe Gospel of John, Jesus testifies to the good news by way of signsthroughout his ministry. These signs point to Jesus’ glory, hisidentity, and the significance of his ministry. Jesus is the Messiah,the Son of God, who offers eternal and abundant life. This abundantlife is lived out in community.
Inthe Gospel of John, the disciples of Jesus represent the community ofGod (17:21). The disciples did not belong to the world, but theycontinued to live in the world (17:14–16). Throughout hisministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a callto loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38;Luke 9:23–26), a call to the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50;Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock Iwill build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call tocommunity. Jesus’ presence as the head of the community wasreplaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18).
Jesus’ministry continued in the community of Jesus’ followers, God’sfamily—the church. Entrance into the community was obtained byadopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and through theinitiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26;Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–62; John 1:12; 3:16;10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9).
TheQuests for the Historical Jesus
Thequest for the historical Jesus, or seeking who Jesus was from ahistorical perspective, is a modern phenomenon deemed necessary byscholars who claim that the NT Gospels were written long after Jesus’death and were heavily influenced by the post-Easter understanding ofthe church.
Thebeginning of this quest is often dated to 1770, when the lecturenotes of Hermann Samuel Reimarus were published posthumously.Reimarus had launched an inquiry into the identity of Jesus thatrejected as inauthentic all supernatural elements in the Gospels. Heconcluded that the disciples invented Jesus’ miracles,prophecies, ritualistic religion, and resurrection. Reimarus’sconclusions were not widely accepted, but they set off a flurry ofrationalistic research into the historical Jesus that continuedthroughout the nineteenth century. This became known as the “firstquest” for the historical Jesus.
In1906 German theologian Albert Schweit-zer published The Quest of theHistorical Jesus (German title: Von Reimarus zu Wrede: EineGeschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung), a scathing indictment of thefirst quest. Schweitzer’s work showed that nineteenth-centuryresearchers re-created Jesus in their own image, transforming thehistorical Jesus into a modern philanthropist preaching aninoffensive message of love and brotherhood. Schweitzer’sconclusions marked the beginning of the end for this first quest.Schweitzer himself concluded that the historical Jesus was aneschatological prophet whose purposes failed during his last days inJerusalem.
Withthe demise of the first quest, some NT scholars, such as RudolfBultmann, rejected any claim to being able to discover the historicalJesus. This trend continued until 1953, when some of Bultmann’sformer students launched what has come to be known as the “newquest” for the historical Jesus (1953–c. 1970). Thisquest created new interest in the historical Jesus but was stilldominated by the view that the portrait of Jesus in the Gospels islargely a creation of the church in a post-Easter setting.
Asthe rebuilding years of the post–World WarII era wanedand scholars started to reap academic fruit from major archaeologicalfinds such as the DSS, research on the historical Jesus moved on towhat has been called the “third quest.” This quest seeksespecially to research and understand Jesus in his social andcultural setting.
Acommon name in first-century Judaism. The Greek name Iōannēscomes from the Hebrewname “Yohanan.” (1)Thefather of Mattathias and grandfather of Judas Maccabeus (1Macc.2:1), he was a priest in the line of Joarib. He is possibly theJehoiarib mentioned in 1Chron. 9:10; 24:7. (2)TheBaptist or Baptizer, he was the son of the priest Zechariah andElizabeth. (See John the Baptist.) (3)Theson of Zebedee, he was an apostle originally belonging to the innercircle of the twelve main disciples of Jesus. (See John the Apostle.)(4)Thefather of Peter the apostle (John 1:42; 21:15–17). The Gospelof Matthew identifies Peter’s father as Jonah, a variant of“John” (16:17). (5)Arelative of the high priest Annas (Acts 4:6). (6)JohnMark, a cousin of Barnabas (Col. 4:10) and the son of Mary (Acts12:12). (See Mark, John.) (7)Theelder. Both 2John and 3John claim authorship by “theelder” (2John 1; 3John 1). Traditionally, all threeJohannine Letters, the Gospel of John, and sometimes the Revelationof John have been attributed to John the apostle. However, modernscholarship often attributes 2John and 3John, andsometimes 1John, to “the elder”—John theelder. (8)Theseer, the author of the book of Revelation (see 1:1, 4, 9; 22:8).Some scholars ascribe the authorship of Revelation to John theapostle, in line with the view of the church father Irenaeus. Otherscholars ascribe the writing of Revelation to a certain John theelder. The book of Revelation does not further identify the author.However, the author is among the prophets, a seer, and his name is“John”—hence, John the seer.
Atransliteration of Iōna, a Greek form of the Hebrew name“Jonah,” used in Matt. 16:17 for the father of SimonPeter, whom Jesus refers to as Bariōna (lit., “Bar-Jona,”or “son of Jona”). Some Greek manuscripts have Iōnaat John 1:42 (KJV: “Simon the son of Jona”).
Atransliteration of Iōna, a Greek form of the Hebrew name“Jonah,” used in Matt. 16:17 for the father of SimonPeter, whom Jesus refers to as Bariōna (lit., “Bar-Jona,”or “son of Jona”). Some Greek manuscripts have Iōnaat John 1:42 (KJV: “Simon the son of Jona”).
A title of Jesus used in the Gospel of John, the Letters ofJohn, and the book of Revelation. This title and its image representa particular insight of some early Christian communities into theidentity and mission of the Messiah.
Thephrase first appears in John 1:29, where John recognizes Jesus as theone “who takes away the sin of the world,” and then againin John 1:36, when John’s outcry causes two of his disciples tobecome the first followers of Jesus. “Lamb of God” isessentially an expansion and reinterpretation of a number of OTtraditions and their application to Jesus.
Themain reference is to the Passover feast, during which John places thepassion narrative, at which a lamb is slaughtered and eaten. This isa celebration and an echo of the original Passover, in which theHebrew people smeared lamb’s blood on the frames of their doorsso that the judgment upon Egypt’s firstborn would not strikethe Hebrews (Exod. 12:1–15). The salvation that John envisions,however, is different from the exodus narrative in many respects. Theenemy from which God’s people are saved is no longer ageopolitical oppressor but rather sin itself. Israel has now beenexpanded to contain the entire human race. The “lamb” hasundergone quite a transformation and is now to be identified with theMessiah and even God himself. For NT believers, Jesus’ deathand resurrection are a completion of the Passover. Rather than savingone people from one specific danger, God’s salvation reachesuniversal efficacy in Jesus Christ, taking away the sin of the world.
Theother figure that feeds meaning into “Lamb of God” is theSuffering Servant of Isa. 53. Isaiah says, “He was oppressedand afflicted, yet he did not open his mouth; he was led like a lambto the slaughter, and as a sheep before her shearers is silent, so hedid not open his mouth” (53:7). John perhaps means to fulfillthis verse specifically in John 19:9. Lambs were also a part of thecultic worship of Israel and were acceptable for more than oneoffering (e.g., Lev. 3:7; 4:32; 5:6).
TheSuffering Servant, the paschal (Passover) lamb, and the lambs forritual sacrifice are not merely victims but vicarious victims thattake on themselves the punishment, guilt, and suffering of others.Thus, others are freed from their burdens. This is the logic thatJohn applies to the death of Jesus.
Whilethat may be the most obvious meaning of the title “Lamb ofGod,” there is a deeper, subtler meaning that the book ofRevelation draws out completely. A lamb is powerless, vulnerable, andsmall, and yet that is how God works. The image of a lamb highlightsthe reversal of the world’s expectations for any savior. Whiletheworld might expect, as the Hebrews of Jesus’ day did,a holy conqueror to overpower all enemies, the world received a lamb,sacrificed on our behalf. “See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah,the Root of David, has triumphed.... Then I saw aLamb, looking as if it had been slain” (5:5–6). Thejuxtaposition of the announcement of the “Lion of the tribe ofJudah” and the reception of a “Lamb, looking as if it hadbeen slain” is striking. Only the lamb is “worthy to takethe scroll ... because you were slain, and with yourblood you purchased for God persons” (5:9). Remembering thatJesus is the Lamb of God and not the Lion of God gives Christianspause to remind themselves that it is not in the great things of theworld that God does his work but rather in the broken faithfulness ofhis Son. For this reason, the image of a lamb taking the reins ofhistory by holding the heavenly scroll became popular in earlyChristian worship.
A title of Jesus used in the Gospel of John, the Letters ofJohn, and the book of Revelation. This title and its image representa particular insight of some early Christian communities into theidentity and mission of the Messiah.
Thephrase first appears in John 1:29, where John recognizes Jesus as theone “who takes away the sin of the world,” and then againin John 1:36, when John’s outcry causes two of his disciples tobecome the first followers of Jesus. “Lamb of God” isessentially an expansion and reinterpretation of a number of OTtraditions and their application to Jesus.
Themain reference is to the Passover feast, during which John places thepassion narrative, at which a lamb is slaughtered and eaten. This isa celebration and an echo of the original Passover, in which theHebrew people smeared lamb’s blood on the frames of their doorsso that the judgment upon Egypt’s firstborn would not strikethe Hebrews (Exod. 12:1–15). The salvation that John envisions,however, is different from the exodus narrative in many respects. Theenemy from which God’s people are saved is no longer ageopolitical oppressor but rather sin itself. Israel has now beenexpanded to contain the entire human race. The “lamb” hasundergone quite a transformation and is now to be identified with theMessiah and even God himself. For NT believers, Jesus’ deathand resurrection are a completion of the Passover. Rather than savingone people from one specific danger, God’s salvation reachesuniversal efficacy in Jesus Christ, taking away the sin of the world.
Theother figure that feeds meaning into “Lamb of God” is theSuffering Servant of Isa. 53. Isaiah says, “He was oppressedand afflicted, yet he did not open his mouth; he was led like a lambto the slaughter, and as a sheep before her shearers is silent, so hedid not open his mouth” (53:7). John perhaps means to fulfillthis verse specifically in John 19:9. Lambs were also a part of thecultic worship of Israel and were acceptable for more than oneoffering (e.g., Lev. 3:7; 4:32; 5:6).
TheSuffering Servant, the paschal (Passover) lamb, and the lambs forritual sacrifice are not merely victims but vicarious victims thattake on themselves the punishment, guilt, and suffering of others.Thus, others are freed from their burdens. This is the logic thatJohn applies to the death of Jesus.
Whilethat may be the most obvious meaning of the title “Lamb ofGod,” there is a deeper, subtler meaning that the book ofRevelation draws out completely. A lamb is powerless, vulnerable, andsmall, and yet that is how God works. The image of a lamb highlightsthe reversal of the world’s expectations for any savior. Whiletheworld might expect, as the Hebrews of Jesus’ day did,a holy conqueror to overpower all enemies, the world received a lamb,sacrificed on our behalf. “See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah,the Root of David, has triumphed.... Then I saw aLamb, looking as if it had been slain” (5:5–6). Thejuxtaposition of the announcement of the “Lion of the tribe ofJudah” and the reception of a “Lamb, looking as if it hadbeen slain” is striking. Only the lamb is “worthy to takethe scroll ... because you were slain, and with yourblood you purchased for God persons” (5:9). Remembering thatJesus is the Lamb of God and not the Lion of God gives Christianspause to remind themselves that it is not in the great things of theworld that God does his work but rather in the broken faithfulness ofhis Son. For this reason, the image of a lamb taking the reins ofhistory by holding the heavenly scroll became popular in earlyChristian worship.
Simon Peter is the best-known and the most colorful of Jesus’twelve disciples. The name “Peter” means “rock”in Greek. In some biblical texts, he is also called “Cephas,”which is the Aramaic word for “rock” (see esp. John1:42). Despite the ups and downs of Peter’s spiritual life, Godwas able to use him as the foundational apostle for the establishmentof the NT church. Peter first met Jesus immediately after Jesus’baptism, when Peter’s brother, Andrew, heard John the Baptist’sidentification of Jesus as the Lamb of God (John 1:35). In classicmissionary style, “the first thing Andrew did was to find hisbrother Simon and tell him, ‘We have found the Messiah’ ”(John 1:41). Peter’s official call to ministry took placelater, when he was fishing on the Sea of Galilee and Jesus issued thewell-known invitation “Come, follow me, ... and Iwill send you out to fish for people” (Matt. 4:19).
Peterwas the chief spokesman for the disciples at Caesarea Philippi whenJesus asked them, “Who do people say the Son of Man is?”(Matt. 16:13). Peter responded, “You are the Messiah, the Sonof the living God,” an insight given him by God the Father(16:16–17). Jesus promised him, “I tell you that you arePeter [petros], and on this rock [petra] I will build my church, andthe gates of Hades will not overcome it” (16:18). Yet Peteralmost immediately became a “stumbling block” to Jesuswhen he chided Jesus for saying that he must go to Jerusalem andsuffer many things and be killed (16:21–22). Another majorfailure by Peter came with his threefold denial of Jesus after Jesushad warned him, “This very night, before the rooster crows, youwill disown me three times” (Matt. 26:34). Fortunately, therewere tears of repentance, and Peter was forgiven and restored afterJesus’ threefold question (“Do you love me?” [John21:15–19]).
Jesus’death and resurrection, as well as the giving of the Holy Spirit onthe day of Pentecost, had stabilizing effects on Peter. After Jesus’ascension, Peter exercised primary leadership among the otherdisciples during the upper room prayer meetings and the choosing ofthe replacement for Judas (Acts 1). Peter clearly was the publicspokesman for the apostles on the day of Pentecost and a key playerin the establishment of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 2–5), inreceiving the first Samaritan converts (Acts 8:14–25), and inreceiving Cornelius as the first Gentile convert (Acts 10–11).Following Peter’s miraculous deliverance from prison in Acts12, he essentially disappears from recorded history. By the time ofthe Jerusalem council (Acts 15), Peter reappeared briefly, but bythis time he had been replaced by James as the leader of theJerusalem church. Peter apparently continued to live as a missionary(1Cor. 9:5), specifically “to the circumcised”(Gal. 2:7–8), for the rest of his life. Yet Peter was stillhuman, and on one occasion Paul gave him a stinging rebuke (Gal.2:11–21).
Duringhis travels, Peter undoubtedly visited the recipients of his laterletter 1Peter (and possibly 2Peter) in north central AsiaMinor (the regions of “Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia andBithynia” [1Pet. 1:1]), possibly Corinth (1Cor.1:12; 3:22), and, at least by the end of his life, Rome itself.According to tradition, he was put to death by Nero between AD 64 and68, apparently by being crucified upside down (cf. John 21:18–19).Peter’s life is a vivid illustration of the Christian’sfight for faith, God’s gracious provision, and Jesus’intercession on his behalf (“I have prayed for you, Simon, thatyour faith may not fail” [Luke 22:32]).
A title applied to teachers and others in respectedpositions, literally meaning “my master.” By the NT era,the term was used in a more specific sense to refer to teachers ofthe Mosaic law.
Inthe NT, the title occurs only in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, andJohn, and it is most commonly used to address Jesus. In Mark’sGospel the disciples three times address Jesus as “Rabbi”(Mark 9:5; 11:21; 14:45). In Matthew’s Gospel only Judas callsJesus “Rabbi” and only in the context of betraying Jesus(Matt. 26:25, 49). The title is used more widely in John’sGospel by individuals such as Nathanael and Nicodemus, as well as thegroup of disciples (John 1:38, 49; 3:2; 4:31; 6:25; 9:2; 11:8). Thetitle conveys the respect of pupil for master and indicates thenature of the relationship that Jesus had with his followers.
Otherswere also called “Rabbi,” including John the Baptist andsome of the Pharisees (John 3:26; Matt. 23:7). Although the Phariseesconsidered the title an honor, Jesus instructed his disciples not toallow themselves to be addressed as “Rabbi” and toacknowledge only one teacher, Christ (Matt. 23:8, 10). See alsoRabboni.
Simon Peter is the best-known and the most colorful of Jesus’twelve disciples. The name “Peter” means “rock”in Greek. In some biblical texts, he is also called “Cephas,”which is the Aramaic word for “rock” (see esp. John1:42). Despite the ups and downs of Peter’s spiritual life, Godwas able to use him as the foundational apostle for the establishmentof the NT church. Peter first met Jesus immediately after Jesus’baptism, when Peter’s brother, Andrew, heard John the Baptist’sidentification of Jesus as the Lamb of God (John 1:35). In classicmissionary style, “the first thing Andrew did was to find hisbrother Simon and tell him, ‘We have found the Messiah’ ”(John 1:41). Peter’s official call to ministry took placelater, when he was fishing on the Sea of Galilee and Jesus issued thewell-known invitation “Come, follow me, ... and Iwill send you out to fish for people” (Matt. 4:19).
Peterwas the chief spokesman for the disciples at Caesarea Philippi whenJesus asked them, “Who do people say the Son of Man is?”(Matt. 16:13). Peter responded, “You are the Messiah, the Sonof the living God,” an insight given him by God the Father(16:16–17). Jesus promised him, “I tell you that you arePeter [petros], and on this rock [petra] I will build my church, andthe gates of Hades will not overcome it” (16:18). Yet Peteralmost immediately became a “stumbling block” to Jesuswhen he chided Jesus for saying that he must go to Jerusalem andsuffer many things and be killed (16:21–22). Another majorfailure by Peter came with his threefold denial of Jesus after Jesushad warned him, “This very night, before the rooster crows, youwill disown me three times” (Matt. 26:34). Fortunately, therewere tears of repentance, and Peter was forgiven and restored afterJesus’ threefold question (“Do you love me?” [John21:15–19]).
Jesus’death and resurrection, as well as the giving of the Holy Spirit onthe day of Pentecost, had stabilizing effects on Peter. After Jesus’ascension, Peter exercised primary leadership among the otherdisciples during the upper room prayer meetings and the choosing ofthe replacement for Judas (Acts 1). Peter clearly was the publicspokesman for the apostles on the day of Pentecost and a key playerin the establishment of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 2–5), inreceiving the first Samaritan converts (Acts 8:14–25), and inreceiving Cornelius as the first Gentile convert (Acts 10–11).Following Peter’s miraculous deliverance from prison in Acts12, he essentially disappears from recorded history. By the time ofthe Jerusalem council (Acts 15), Peter reappeared briefly, but bythis time he had been replaced by James as the leader of theJerusalem church. Peter apparently continued to live as a missionary(1Cor. 9:5), specifically “to the circumcised”(Gal. 2:7–8), for the rest of his life. Yet Peter was stillhuman, and on one occasion Paul gave him a stinging rebuke (Gal.2:11–21).
Duringhis travels, Peter undoubtedly visited the recipients of his laterletter 1Peter (and possibly 2Peter) in north central AsiaMinor (the regions of “Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia andBithynia” [1Pet. 1:1]), possibly Corinth (1Cor.1:12; 3:22), and, at least by the end of his life, Rome itself.According to tradition, he was put to death by Nero between AD 64 and68, apparently by being crucified upside down (cf. John 21:18–19).Peter’s life is a vivid illustration of the Christian’sfight for faith, God’s gracious provision, and Jesus’intercession on his behalf (“I have prayed for you, Simon, thatyour faith may not fail” [Luke 22:32]).
To communicate the meaning of a text (oral or written) fromone language in another. At the time of Ezra, Levites read from theHebrew “Book of the Law of God,” conveying the “sense”in Aramaic (Neh. 8:1–8). By the first century, Aramaic portionsof the Law and the Prophets (Targumim) were read in Palestiniansynagogues, and a larger collection, traditionally called the“Seventy” (Septuagint), was translated into Greek inAlexandria, Egypt. These translations range from literal toperiphrastic, but with the aim of fidelity to the original. TheGospels occasionally translate Jesus’ Aramaic sayings (e.g.,Mark 5:41; John 1:42).
Secondary Matches
The following suggestions occured because
John 1:35-42
is mentioned in the definition.
Aramaic for “son of Jonah” (see NIV). This is thesurname of Simon Peter, identifying his father as Jonah (Matt. 16:17)or John (John 1:42).
A disciple of Jesus, and one of the twelve apostles. His nameappears in the Synoptic lists of apostles (Matt. 10:2–4; Mark3:16–19; Luke 6:13–16) and as a witness to Jesus’ascension (Acts 1:13). Nothing else is known of him unless, assuggested by a ninth-century tradition, his other name was“Nathanael,” a disciple mentioned in John’s Gospel(1:45). The evidence is not conclusive, but Nathanael was closelyassociated with the apostles before and after the resurrection (John1:35–51; 21:1–2); Jesus promised him divine revelation,which would accord well with apostolic status (1:50–51); and heis connected to Philip in John’s Gospel (1:45) just asBartholomew is in the Synoptic lists of the apostles (Matt. 10:3).
(1) Avillage about two miles east of Jerusalem on the way to Jericho (John11:18). It is mentioned twice in Matthew (21:17; 26:6), four times inMark (11:1, 11, 12; 14:3), twice in Luke (19:29; 24:50), and threetimes in John (11:1, 18; 12:1). Bethany is identified as a placewhere Jesus lodged several times, primarily because his friendsLazarus, Mary, and Martha lived there (John 11:1; 12:1). It was herethat Jesus raised Lazarus from the dead and dined at the house ofSimon the leper. Simon’s house in Bethany is where Maryanointed Jesus’ body before his death and resurrection (Matt.26:6–13; John 12:1–2).
(2) Johnthe Baptist ministered in a place called “Bethany”beyond/across the Jordan (John 1:28). It was here on the east side ofthe Jordan that Jesus called his first disciples (John 1:35–42).The modern town of El-’Aziriyeh is traditionally associatedwith first-century Bethany. See also Bethabara.
Bible Texts and VersionsThe NT and the OT have considerably different but partiallyoverlapping textual histories. For clarity, it is best to begin witha survey of the NT manuscripts and versions.
Greektexts.Although no autographs of the NT books survive, there exist more thanfive thousand Greek texts covering anywhere from a portion of a fewverses up to the complete NT. Traditionally, these texts have beenclassified into five groups: papyri, uncials, minuscules,lectionaries, and quotations in patristic texts. The most importantmanuscripts are listed below.
Theearliest texts of the NT are those written on papyrus. Ninety-eightof these manuscripts have been identified, and they are representedby a “P” with a numerical superscript. The earliest ofthese papyri is P52, which contains parts of four verses in John 18and dates to the early second century. For substantial portions ofthe NT text, the most important papyri are found in the ChesterBeatty and Bodmer collections. P45, P46, and P47, all from theChester Beatty collection, are from the third century and containlarge sections of the four Gospels, eight of the Pauline Epistles,Hebrews, and Revelation. Within the Bodmer collection in Geneva arefour very important codices. P66 dates to around AD 200 and preservesmost of the Gospel of John. P72 dates to the third century andcontains the earliest copies of 1–2 Peter and Jude, which arepreserved in their entirety, as well as Greek translations of Pss.33–34. P74 dates to the seventh century and contains portionsof Acts, James, 1–2 Peter, 1–3 John, and Jude. Finally,P75, which dates to the early third century, contains most of Lukeand John 1–15. It is the oldest extant copy of Luke. Among theremaining papyri, forty-three have been dated to the early fourthcentury or before.
Thesecond category of manuscripts is the uncials, which usually werewritten on parchment and span the fourth through the tenth centuries.About 270 uncials are known, and they range from a few verses up tocomplete copies of the NT or even the entire Bible. Uncialsoriginally were denoted by capital letters, but when the number ofmanuscripts grew beyond these limits, a new system was employedwhereby each manuscript was given a number always beginning withzero. However, the most important uncials are still usually known bytheir letter. Among the most important uncials are the following fivemanuscripts. Codex Sinaiticus (designated by the Hebrew letter à)dates to the fourth century and is the only uncial that contains theentire NT. It also has almost all of the OT as well as the earlyChristian writings the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd ofHermas. Dating from the fifth century, Codex Alexandrinus (designatedas A) contains the OT, most of the NT—lacking only portions ofMatthew, John, and 2 Corinthians—and 1–2 Clement.Along with Sinaiticus, the most important uncial is Codex Vaticanus(designated as B), which dates to the fourth century. It containsalmost all of the OT and the complete NT, except for substantialportions between Hebrews and Revelation. It has been in the Vatican’slibrary for over five hundred years. The fourth important uncial isCodex Bezae Cantabrigiensis (designated as D), which contains Greekand Latin copies of the four Gospels, most of Acts, and a few versesfrom 3 John. It dates from the late fourth or early fifthcentury. The fifth important uncial is Codex Washingtonianus(designated as W), which dates to the early fifth century andcontains virtually all of the four Gospels.
Thethird category of NT manuscripts is minuscules. These texts date fromthe ninth century and later and comprise approximately 2,800manuscripts, which are denoted by a number not beginning with zero.Among the more important minuscules are Codex 1, Codex 13, and Codex33, which, along with their relatives, are considered reliablewitnesses to early families of texts such as the Caesarean (1) or theAlexandrian (33). Codex 13 and its relatives are noteworthy forhaving the story of the adulterous woman at the end of Luke 21instead of in John 8. The final two groups of NT manuscripts, thelectionaries and quotations in patristic sources, are not manuscriptsin the strict sense of the term, but their use of portions of the NTpresents important witnesses for the practice of textual criticism.
Versions.With the spread of Christianity during the time of the Roman Empire,the NT was translated into the language of the native peoples. Theseversions of the NT are important both for textual criticism of the NTand for the interpretive decisions that are reflected in how the textwas rendered into a new language. Among the most important earlyversions of the NT are the following.
AsLatin began to displace Greek as the dominant language of the empire,there was a need for a Latin version of the Bible. The earliesttranslation, known as the Old Latin or Itala, was made probably inthe late second century, though the oldest manuscript (CodexVercellensis) is from the fourth century. With the proliferation ofLatin texts a standardized Latin translation became desirable, and inAD 382 Jerome was commissioned by Pope Damasus to provide a newtranslation known as the Vulgate.
Anotherfamily of NT versions is the Syriac texts. Around the late secondcentury the four Gospels were translated into a version known as theOld Syriac. It is extant in two incomplete manuscripts that areprobably fifth century. The translation that became the standardSyriac text is the Pesh*tta, which was produced in the early fifthcentury. It does not contain 2 Peter, 2–3 John, Jude, orRevelation because these were not considered canonical among theSyriac churches.
Otherimportant versions of the NT from antiquity are the Coptic, Armenian,Georgian, and Ethiopic translations.
OldTestament
Hebrewtexts.The text that has served as the basis for most modern editions andtranslations of the Hebrew OT is the Masoretic Text (MT), named afterthe Masoretes, the Jewish scribes who transmitted the text and addedvocalization, accentuation, and notes to the consonantal text. Themost important Masoretic manuscripts date from the end of the ninthcentury to the early eleventh century. Notable among these is theLeningrad Codex (AD 1008), denoted as L, which is the earliestMasoretic manuscript of the entire OT. Also important are the AleppoCodex (c. AD 925), denoted as A, which preserves all of the OT exceptfor most of the Pentateuch; the British Museum MS Or. 4445 (c. AD925), denoted as B, which contains most of the Pentateuch; and theCairo Codex (c. AD 896), denoted C, which contains Joshua throughKings and also the Prophets.
Althoughthese manuscripts are much later than the biblical period, theirreliability was largely confirmed with the discovery of the DSSbeginning in 1947. Among the Qumran library are many manuscripts ofbiblical books as well as biblical commentaries, apocrphyal andpseudepigraphal works, and sectarian literature. All the OT books arerepresented among the scrolls that were found except Esther andNehemiah, though the latter is usually presumed to have been at theend of Ezra but has not survived. The books with the most manuscriptsare, in order, Psalms, Deuteronomy, and Isaiah. One of the strikingcharacteristics of these scrolls is that they reflect a diversity oftext types. For example, there is a copy of Jeremiah that is close tothe Masoretic version, but also a manuscript of Jeremiah similar tothe much shorter version found in the Septuagint (the Greektranslation of the OT).
AnotherHebrew text of the OT is that of the Samaritan Pentateuch, which isthe text transmitted by the Samaritans. It is similar to the MT insome respects but also has differences that reflect theologicalinterests. The main manuscripts for the Samaritan Pentateuch are fromthe twelfth century.
Versions.Between the third and first centuries BC, the entire OT wastranslated into Greek. This version, known as the Septuagint(designated by the abbreviation LXX), became the main version of theOT used by the early church. Due to its adoption by the church, theLXX has been preserved in numerous manuscripts, including Sinaiticus,Alexandrinus, and Vaticanus. By the late first century BC or earlyfirst century AD, there were two revisions of the Greek text: theProto-Lucianic version and the Kaige recension. The latter aimed torevise the Greek toward closer conformity with the Hebrew text andderives its name from its peculiar tendency to translate the Hebrewword gam (“also”) with the Greek work kaige. In thesecond century AD three other Greek translations were made by Aquila,Theodotion, and Symmachus, all of which revised the Kaige recensionback toward the MT.
Anotherimportant early version of the OT consists of the Targumim, which areAramaic translations or paraphrases (and sometimes extensiveelaborations) of OT books. The official Targumim for Judaism areTargum Onqelos for the Pentateuch (c. second century AD), which isquite literal, and Targum Pseudo-Jonathan for the Prophets (sometimebefore the fourth century AD), which ranges from being quite literalto somewhat paraphrastic. Unofficial Targumim for the Pentateuchinclude Targum Neofiti and Targum Pseudo-Jonathan. There are alsovarious unofficial Targumim for the Writings section of the OT,except for Daniel and Ezra-Nehemiah (which are already written partlyin Aramaic).
Besidesthe Greek and Aramaic translations, there are other importantversions of the OT. Sometime in either the third or fourth centuryAD, the Pesh*tta of the OT was produced, though there is evidencethat there were earlier Syriac translations of some books alreadycirculating. Also important is a group of Latin translations knowncollectively as the Old Latin. These versions were produced sometimeduring the second century AD and were primarily made from alreadyexisting Greek translations rather than Hebrew texts. As with the NT,a later Latin translation was made by Jerome for the Vulgate.
Bible Texts and VersionsThe NT and the OT have considerably different but partiallyoverlapping textual histories. For clarity, it is best to begin witha survey of the NT manuscripts and versions.
Greektexts.Although no autographs of the NT books survive, there exist more thanfive thousand Greek texts covering anywhere from a portion of a fewverses up to the complete NT. Traditionally, these texts have beenclassified into five groups: papyri, uncials, minuscules,lectionaries, and quotations in patristic texts. The most importantmanuscripts are listed below.
Theearliest texts of the NT are those written on papyrus. Ninety-eightof these manuscripts have been identified, and they are representedby a “P” with a numerical superscript. The earliest ofthese papyri is P52, which contains parts of four verses in John 18and dates to the early second century. For substantial portions ofthe NT text, the most important papyri are found in the ChesterBeatty and Bodmer collections. P45, P46, and P47, all from theChester Beatty collection, are from the third century and containlarge sections of the four Gospels, eight of the Pauline Epistles,Hebrews, and Revelation. Within the Bodmer collection in Geneva arefour very important codices. P66 dates to around AD 200 and preservesmost of the Gospel of John. P72 dates to the third century andcontains the earliest copies of 1–2 Peter and Jude, which arepreserved in their entirety, as well as Greek translations of Pss.33–34. P74 dates to the seventh century and contains portionsof Acts, James, 1–2 Peter, 1–3 John, and Jude. Finally,P75, which dates to the early third century, contains most of Lukeand John 1–15. It is the oldest extant copy of Luke. Among theremaining papyri, forty-three have been dated to the early fourthcentury or before.
Thesecond category of manuscripts is the uncials, which usually werewritten on parchment and span the fourth through the tenth centuries.About 270 uncials are known, and they range from a few verses up tocomplete copies of the NT or even the entire Bible. Uncialsoriginally were denoted by capital letters, but when the number ofmanuscripts grew beyond these limits, a new system was employedwhereby each manuscript was given a number always beginning withzero. However, the most important uncials are still usually known bytheir letter. Among the most important uncials are the following fivemanuscripts. Codex Sinaiticus (designated by the Hebrew letter à)dates to the fourth century and is the only uncial that contains theentire NT. It also has almost all of the OT as well as the earlyChristian writings the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd ofHermas. Dating from the fifth century, Codex Alexandrinus (designatedas A) contains the OT, most of the NT—lacking only portions ofMatthew, John, and 2 Corinthians—and 1–2 Clement.Along with Sinaiticus, the most important uncial is Codex Vaticanus(designated as B), which dates to the fourth century. It containsalmost all of the OT and the complete NT, except for substantialportions between Hebrews and Revelation. It has been in the Vatican’slibrary for over five hundred years. The fourth important uncial isCodex Bezae Cantabrigiensis (designated as D), which contains Greekand Latin copies of the four Gospels, most of Acts, and a few versesfrom 3 John. It dates from the late fourth or early fifthcentury. The fifth important uncial is Codex Washingtonianus(designated as W), which dates to the early fifth century andcontains virtually all of the four Gospels.
Thethird category of NT manuscripts is minuscules. These texts date fromthe ninth century and later and comprise approximately 2,800manuscripts, which are denoted by a number not beginning with zero.Among the more important minuscules are Codex 1, Codex 13, and Codex33, which, along with their relatives, are considered reliablewitnesses to early families of texts such as the Caesarean (1) or theAlexandrian (33). Codex 13 and its relatives are noteworthy forhaving the story of the adulterous woman at the end of Luke 21instead of in John 8. The final two groups of NT manuscripts, thelectionaries and quotations in patristic sources, are not manuscriptsin the strict sense of the term, but their use of portions of the NTpresents important witnesses for the practice of textual criticism.
Versions.With the spread of Christianity during the time of the Roman Empire,the NT was translated into the language of the native peoples. Theseversions of the NT are important both for textual criticism of the NTand for the interpretive decisions that are reflected in how the textwas rendered into a new language. Among the most important earlyversions of the NT are the following.
AsLatin began to displace Greek as the dominant language of the empire,there was a need for a Latin version of the Bible. The earliesttranslation, known as the Old Latin or Itala, was made probably inthe late second century, though the oldest manuscript (CodexVercellensis) is from the fourth century. With the proliferation ofLatin texts a standardized Latin translation became desirable, and inAD 382 Jerome was commissioned by Pope Damasus to provide a newtranslation known as the Vulgate.
Anotherfamily of NT versions is the Syriac texts. Around the late secondcentury the four Gospels were translated into a version known as theOld Syriac. It is extant in two incomplete manuscripts that areprobably fifth century. The translation that became the standardSyriac text is the Pesh*tta, which was produced in the early fifthcentury. It does not contain 2 Peter, 2–3 John, Jude, orRevelation because these were not considered canonical among theSyriac churches.
Otherimportant versions of the NT from antiquity are the Coptic, Armenian,Georgian, and Ethiopic translations.
OldTestament
Hebrewtexts.The text that has served as the basis for most modern editions andtranslations of the Hebrew OT is the Masoretic Text (MT), named afterthe Masoretes, the Jewish scribes who transmitted the text and addedvocalization, accentuation, and notes to the consonantal text. Themost important Masoretic manuscripts date from the end of the ninthcentury to the early eleventh century. Notable among these is theLeningrad Codex (AD 1008), denoted as L, which is the earliestMasoretic manuscript of the entire OT. Also important are the AleppoCodex (c. AD 925), denoted as A, which preserves all of the OT exceptfor most of the Pentateuch; the British Museum MS Or. 4445 (c. AD925), denoted as B, which contains most of the Pentateuch; and theCairo Codex (c. AD 896), denoted C, which contains Joshua throughKings and also the Prophets.
Althoughthese manuscripts are much later than the biblical period, theirreliability was largely confirmed with the discovery of the DSSbeginning in 1947. Among the Qumran library are many manuscripts ofbiblical books as well as biblical commentaries, apocrphyal andpseudepigraphal works, and sectarian literature. All the OT books arerepresented among the scrolls that were found except Esther andNehemiah, though the latter is usually presumed to have been at theend of Ezra but has not survived. The books with the most manuscriptsare, in order, Psalms, Deuteronomy, and Isaiah. One of the strikingcharacteristics of these scrolls is that they reflect a diversity oftext types. For example, there is a copy of Jeremiah that is close tothe Masoretic version, but also a manuscript of Jeremiah similar tothe much shorter version found in the Septuagint (the Greektranslation of the OT).
AnotherHebrew text of the OT is that of the Samaritan Pentateuch, which isthe text transmitted by the Samaritans. It is similar to the MT insome respects but also has differences that reflect theologicalinterests. The main manuscripts for the Samaritan Pentateuch are fromthe twelfth century.
Versions.Between the third and first centuries BC, the entire OT wastranslated into Greek. This version, known as the Septuagint(designated by the abbreviation LXX), became the main version of theOT used by the early church. Due to its adoption by the church, theLXX has been preserved in numerous manuscripts, including Sinaiticus,Alexandrinus, and Vaticanus. By the late first century BC or earlyfirst century AD, there were two revisions of the Greek text: theProto-Lucianic version and the Kaige recension. The latter aimed torevise the Greek toward closer conformity with the Hebrew text andderives its name from its peculiar tendency to translate the Hebrewword gam (“also”) with the Greek work kaige. In thesecond century AD three other Greek translations were made by Aquila,Theodotion, and Symmachus, all of which revised the Kaige recensionback toward the MT.
Anotherimportant early version of the OT consists of the Targumim, which areAramaic translations or paraphrases (and sometimes extensiveelaborations) of OT books. The official Targumim for Judaism areTargum Onqelos for the Pentateuch (c. second century AD), which isquite literal, and Targum Pseudo-Jonathan for the Prophets (sometimebefore the fourth century AD), which ranges from being quite literalto somewhat paraphrastic. Unofficial Targumim for the Pentateuchinclude Targum Neofiti and Targum Pseudo-Jonathan. There are alsovarious unofficial Targumim for the Writings section of the OT,except for Daniel and Ezra-Nehemiah (which are already written partlyin Aramaic).
Besidesthe Greek and Aramaic translations, there are other importantversions of the OT. Sometime in either the third or fourth centuryAD, the Pesh*tta of the OT was produced, though there is evidencethat there were earlier Syriac translations of some books alreadycirculating. Also important is a group of Latin translations knowncollectively as the Old Latin. These versions were produced sometimeduring the second century AD and were primarily made from alreadyexisting Greek translations rather than Hebrew texts. As with the NT,a later Latin translation was made by Jerome for the Vulgate.
Purpose
Thepreface to the book of Proverbs (1:1–7) introduces its intentto make its reader wise. Although the discourses of the book (chaps.1–9) are the instructions of a father to his son, the prefacewidens the audience to include both the “simple” (1:4)and the “wise” (1:5). The preface also informs the readerthat wisdom begins with the fear of the Lord, thus indicating thatwisdom is more than practical advice. Wisdom is a theological truth.
HistoricalBackground
Thefirst verse of Proverbs associates the book with “Solomon sonof David, king of Israel” (1:1). Solomon was the king of aunited Israel in the tenth century BC, and his association withwisdom is well known from the historical books (1Kings 3;4:29–34; 10:1–13; 2Chron. 1; 9:1–12).
AlthoughProverbs clearly attributes large sections of the book to Solomon(particularly 10:1–22:16; 25:1–29:27), it also recognizesother hands in the production of the book. First, 25:1, whileassociating Solomon with the following proverbs, also mentions thescribal activity of “the men of Hezekiah,” a Judean kingfrom the late eighth and early seventh centuries BC. Second,22:17–24:34 is connected to a group known as “the wise”(see 22:17; 24:23). Below, we will see that this section bearscomparison with ancient Egyptian proverbial literature. Finally,there are sayings of two foreign kings, Agur (30:1) and Lemuelrespectively (31:1).
Insummary, Solomon is the fountainhead of the book of Proverbs. Hecreated and collected proverbs, thus initiating the collection. AfterSolomon, other proverbs were added to the collection, including someof his own (25:1). We do not know precisely when the book came to afinal form, though it was before the canon of the OT was closed.
AncientNear Eastern Background
In1Kings 4:29–30 Solomon’s wisdom is said to surpassthat of the “people of the East” as well as “thewisdom of Egypt.” Such a statement can be a compliment only ifthe wisdom of the broader ancient Near East had some measure ofvalidity. Once the merit of ancient Near Eastern wisdom isrecognized, we may not be surprised to see some measure of similaritybetween certain proverbs and wisdom from outside Israel.
Themost famous comparison is between the thirty “sayings of thewise” in Prov. 22:17–24:22 and the thirty chapters of theEgyptian Instructions of Amenemope. The latter is dated before thetime of Solomon and contains instructions similar to Proverbs. Oneexample is the instruction “Do not move an ancient boundarystone” in Prov. 23:10 and the similar admonition in Amenemope7.12.
Morerecently, the connections between Proverbs and ancient Near Easternproverbs have been broadened to include not only other ancientEgyptian instruction texts but also Sumerian and especially Aramaicproverbial literature (particularly Ahiqar).
Itappears that the faithful in Israel recognized that even observantpagans could stumble across truths about how God’s creationworks. Even so, the faithful in Israel would not recognize theirEgyptian counterparts as “wise” even when they wereperhaps inspired by their insights into the workings of the world.After all, they did not have “fear of the Lord” and didnot embrace Wisdom (see below).
SocialSetting
Theproverbs of the biblical book seem to come from different sectors ofIsraelite society. It is not surprising, considering the role ofSolomon and the “men of Hezekiah,” that a number ofproverbs originated and have their primary usage in the royal court(23:1–3). Even so, other proverbs originate in village life ofa*grarian society (10:5). When the latter are found in parts of thebook attributed to Solomon, he might be the collector rather than thecreator.
Text
TheGreek translation of Proverbs has significant differences from themain Hebrew texts, particularly in its outline. While some scholarssee this as evidence of two different editions of the book, othersmore plausibly argue that the Greek text is a very free translationthat reflects Stoic philosophy and Jewish midrashic thinking. ModernEnglish translations, thus, are based on the ancient Hebrew texts.
LiteraryConsiderations
Structure.The book of Proverbs can be outlined in more than one way. As notedabove, the book contains rubrics indicating different authors, and onthat basis the book may be divided in the following way:
1:1:Solomon, for the whole book
10:1:Solomon, for 10:1–22:16
22:17:The wise (see also 24:23), for 22:17–24:34
30:1:Agur, for 30:1–33
31:1:Lemuel, for 31:1–9
Recognizingthat 1:1 is a superscription for the entire book, and that 1:1–7is a preamble certainly added late in the process of collection todescribe the purpose of the whole book, we find the followingstructure:
Superscription(1:1)
Preamble(Stating the Purpose) (1:2–7)
SolomonicProverbs (10:1–22:16; 25:1–29:27)
Sayingsof the Wise (22:17–24:34)
Sayingsof Lemuel (30:1–33)
Poemto the Virtuous Woman (31:10–31)
Ona large scale, the most interesting structural insight is thatchapters 1–9 contain extended discourses, while chapters 10–31contain the proverbs perse (see “Genre” below). Thediscourses in the first nine chapters have the following outline:
Thepreamble (1:1–7)
Avoidevil associations (1:8–19)
Donot resist Wisdom (1:20–33)
Thebenefits of the way of wisdom (2:1–22)
Trustin Yahweh (3:1–12)
Praisingwisdom (3:13–20)
Theintegrity of wisdom (3:21–35)
Embracewisdom (4:1–9)
Stayon the right path (4:10–19)
Guardyour heart (4:20–27)
Avoidpromiscuous women (part1) (5:1–23)
Wisdomadmonitions: loans, laziness, lying, and other topics (6:1–19)
Thedanger of adultery (6:20–35)
Avoidpromiscuous women (part2) (7:1–27)
Wisdom’sautobiography (8:1–36)
Miscellaneouswisdom sayings (9:7–12)
Thesecond part of the book (chaps. 10–31) seems more randomlystructured, with the individual proverbs moving from one topic(laziness, parental authority, wealth and poverty, speech, etc.) toanother in no apparent order. Some recent commentators have tried todiscover a deep structure to the material, but they have failed toconvince a wide audience. As we will see below (“TheologicalMessage”), the fact that the discourses precede the proverbshas important theological significance.
Genre.Proverbs is a book of wisdom. On the surface, biblical wisdom appearsto be practical advice about how to live life. How does one navigatedifficulties in order to achieve success, defined as a happy,prosperous, productive life? In many ways it is similar to the modernconcept of emotional intelligence. It is not so much a matter ofknowing facts as it is a skill of living, saying the right thing anddoing the right thing at the right time.
Butcareful reading of the book demonstrates that wisdom is deeper thanpractical lessons in living. Wisdom from the start involves atheological dimension. As explained more fully below, one cannot bewise unless one has a proper relationship with God. After all, “thefear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge” (1:7).
Asa book that teaches wisdom, Proverbs fits into a category ofliterature that includes Job and Ecclesiastes as well as variouspsalms (e.g., Pss. 1; 49; 73).
Withinthe book of Proverbs, we discover two dominant types of literature:the discourse and the proverb perse.
Thediscourse is the major genre of chapters 1–9. These areextended speeches, typically of a father to a son (e.g., 1:8–19),but occasionally of Wisdom to all the young men who are going by(1:20–33). Both the father and Wisdom encourage their hearersto stay on the path of wisdom, which leads to life, and to avoidfolly, which leads to death. Most of the discourses of Proverbs beginwith an exhortation that summons the hearer to pay attention andoften gives motivation for doing so. It is followed by a lesson(notice, e.g., the extensive teaching about proper sexualrelationships in chaps. 5–7). A conclusion typically talksabout the consequences of listening or not listening to the lesson.
Thebulk of the second part, chapters 10–31, is proverbs perse,though there are longer forms, such as the poem to the virtuous woman(31:10–31). The proverb is a short (typically a two-partparallel line) saying that provides an observation, warning, orencouragement concerning a certain type of behavior. An example isthe observation in 10:4: “Lazy hands make for poverty, butdiligent hands bring wealth.” Although this proverb simplymakes an observation, it implicitly offers encouragement to live withdiligence in order to avoid poverty.
Theproverb as a genre makes no claim to universal truth. While someproverbs are always true by virtue of their link with a law that isalways true (e.g., 30:20, reflecting the commandment not to commitadultery), the proverb itself does not claim to always be true.Proverbs are true only if applied at the right time and in the rightsituation. That is why we encounter contradictory proverbs such as26:4 and 26:5, where the advice not to answer a fool is followedimmediately by the advice to answer a fool. The wise person must readthe situation in order to know which of these two proverbs isapplicable.
Thecirc*mstantial nature of proverbs is also typically true ofobservations such as the one in 10:4, noted above. It is not alwaystrue that lazy people become poor or that hard workers become rich.The former might inherit a fortune, while the latter might have theirhard work destroyed by a natural catastrophe.
Inorder to use proverbs correctly, readers and users of proverbs mustrecognize the circ*mstantial nature of the truth claims of a proverb.After all, proverbs misused are useless (26:7) and even dangerous(26:9).
Anothercommon misuse of a proverb involves the “rewards” and“punishments” described in relationship to wise andfoolish behavior. These are not promises. They are, instead, the mostlikely outcome from a particular course of action, all other thingsbeing equal. Thus, the advice to “start children off on the waythey should go” tells parents the best route to a desired end(22:6). If they do so, it is likely that their children will not turnfrom the way of wisdom. But there is no guarantee. Other factorsmight lead the child astray.
Style.The book of Proverbs is poetry (see Imagery; Poetry). It utilizesfigurative language to convey its message. Perhaps the mostintriguing image in the book is that of Wisdom (see below). Thepoetry of Proverbs also uses sound plays as well as the acrostic form(31:20–31) (see Acrostic).
TheologicalMessage
Fearof the Lord.According to Proverbs, no one can be wise without having the properrelationship with God (1:7). This relationship is characterized by“fear.” This fear is not horror, but it is more thanrespect. The point is that the wise person must understand that God,and no one else, is at the center of the universe, that God is moreimportant than any human being. After all, God created the world(3:19–20; 8:22–31), so it is important to know one’splace before the Creator in order to understand how the world works.
Wisdomand Folly.The relational nature of wisdom as “fear of the Lord” istaught in yet another intriguing way. In 1:20–33; 8:1–36;9:1–6 the reader encounters a woman, Wisdom, who invites allthe young men (the readers) to dinner. Such an invitation presumes anintimate relationship. The location of Wisdom’s home on “thehighest point of the city” (9:3) reflects the location of thetemple and indicates that Wisdom stands for Yahweh’s wisdom,even Yahweh himself. On the other hand, in 9:13–18 anotherwoman, Folly, issues a rival invitation. Her home too is on “thehighest point of the city” (9:14), indicating that she standsfor a god as well, but in her case the false gods of the nations. Inchapter 9, the reader must decide with whom to dine, Wisdom (Yahweh)or Folly (false gods). Thus, wisdom and folly are not only practical,but also theological categories. Someone who acts wisely is behavinglike a proper worshiper of the true God, whereas someone who actsfoolishly is behaving like an idolater.
NewTestament Connections
TheLetter of James has many interesting connections with Proverbs. Itdescribes “the wisdom that comes from heaven” (3:17) andspeaks to a number of proverbial topics. In terms of the latter, theextensive teaching about speech is notable (3:1–12).
Themost striking NT connection to Proverbs, however, comes in theassociation drawn between Jesus and Wisdom, particularly as she isdescribed in Prov. 8. John 1 describes Jesus as the Word in languagereminiscent of Wisdom, and he is connected with Wisdom in Matt.11:19; Col. 1:15–20; Rev. 3:14. It is not that Wisdom is aprophecy of Jesus, but the NT associates this figure of Yahweh’swisdom with Jesus because in him “are hidden all the treasuresof wisdom and knowledge” (Col. 2:3).
The words “sacrifice” and “offering”often are used interchangeably, but “offering” refers toa gift more generally, while “sacrifice” indicates a giftconsecrated for a divine being. In biblical Hebrew “sacrifice”is more narrowly equated with the peace offering. All other“sacrifices” are referred to as gifts. Sacrifices wereoffered to honor God, thanking him for his goodness. More important,they enabled persons to be made right with God by atoning for theirsins. Whereas sin upset the fellowship God desired to have withpeople and kindled his wrath, sacrifice restored the relationship.
OldTestament
OTofferings included cereals (whether the grain was whole, ground intoflour, or mixed with other elements), liquids (wine, oil, or water),and animals (or parts thereof, such as the blood and fat). Althoughthe Bible acknowledges that other ancient Near Eastern people hadtheir own sacrificial rites, it rejects them as unworthy of the Godof Israel. The people of God therefore were instructed how tosacrifice properly while at Sinai. Even so, offerings and sacrificesare recorded as taking place before the law was given.
Priorto the law.Cain and Abel brought the earliest offerings. Contrary to a commoninterpretation, Cain’s offering was not rejected because it didnot include blood; the Hebrew word for the brothers’ gifts,minkhah,usually denotes grain offerings. A better conclusion is that Cainonly brought some of his produce (no mention of firstfruits), whileAbel brought the best of the best (the fat portions from thefirstborn of the flock).
Immediatelyafter the flood, Noah built an altar and presented the first burntoffering mentioned in the Bible (Gen. 8:20). That this (and othersacrifices) was received as a “pleasing aroma” indicatesthat God approved of and accepted it. It is significant thatimmediately after the offering, God made a covenant with Noah, hisdescendants, and every living creature. Sacrifices are closelyrelated to covenant relationships, as can be seen in the story ofAbraham enacting a covenant ceremony in Gen. 15 and in Israelreceiving many instructions about sacrifice while at Sinai (cf. Gen.31:43–54).
Sacrificiallaws in Leviticus.Sacrificial laws are found throughout the Pentateuch, the most beingin Lev. 1–7. As Leviticus makes clear, Israel understoodsacrifice to have a number of different purposes. It was a means tobring a gift to God, to express communion with him and others in thecommunity, to consecrate something or someone for God’s use,and to deal with personal uncleanness or sin. These ideas aredeveloped in the descriptions of the different sacrifices that Israelwas required to bring to God. In general, the sacrifices were made ofclean animals raised by the one making the offering or of grain orwine produced by the person. In some cases, the offering wasconnected with the person’s economic ability, a poorer personbeing allowed to present doves or even cereal if a lamb or goat wasunaffordable for a sin offering (Lev. 5:6–13). In all cases,only the best—what was “without defect”—wasto be offered.
Priestas mediator.Three parties were involved in the sacrifices: the worshiper, thepriest, and God. The worshiper—the person who had sinned orbecome unclean in some way—brought an animal to God, laid ahand upon it, and then killed it. Whether the animal’s deathrepresents the death that the worshiper deserves due to sin orwhether the sin is transferred to the animal that bears it instead isunclear. The priest served as a mediator who offered the blood of thesacrifice to God and, in many instances, burned all or part of theoffering. In response to the offering, God, who had graciously giventhe sacrificial system so that those who had sinned could be restoredto fellowship with him, forgave the person. Uniquely in the ancientworld, Israelite sacrifices were not considered magical acts thatcould manipulate God to act on behalf of the worshiper. Presenting animproper sacrifice while exhibiting an improper attitude or motiveresulted in rejection.
Typesof sacrifices.Leviticus introduced five main sacrifices: the ’olah (1:1–17;6:8–18), the minkhah (2:1–16; 6:14–23), theshelamim (3:1–17; 7:11–36), the khatta’t(4:1–5:13), and the ’asham (5:14–6:7). Most ofthese focused on uncleanness or sin. The worshiper who brought suchan offering was not allowed to eat any of it, as it was wholly givento God. Even when priests were allowed to eat part of a sacrifice,their portion was “waved” before God, indicating that itbelonged to him.
1.The ’olah, or burnt offering, is the basic OT sacrificeconnected with atonement for sin (Lev. 1:4). When rightly offered, itwas accepted as “an aroma pleasing to the Lord.” Theworshiper brought a male animal (young bull, sheep, goat, dove, oryoung pigeon) without blemish, laid a hand upon it, and then killedit. After the priest sprinkled some of the blood on the altar, therest was burned up.
2.The minkhah is simply a gift or offering. The Hebrew word is oftenused for a present given to another person or tribute to a ruler.When used of sacrifice, it is usually rendered as “grainoffering” or “meal offering.” A minkhah can, onoccasion, include flesh or fat (Gen. 4:4; Judg. 6:18–21).Considered “an aroma pleasing to the Lord,” it consistedof unground grain or fine flour mixed with oil and incense and waspresented either cooked or uncooked. Part of the offering was burnedas a “memorial portion,” the rest being given to thepriests (Lev. 2:1–3). It usually was accompanied by a drinkoffering—wine poured out on the altar. Grain offeringsfrequently complemented burnt offerings or fellowship offerings. Theshowbread may have been considered a grain offering.
3.The shelamim (NIV: “fellowship offering”) hastraditionally been called the “peace offering,” as theterm is related to shalom. This offering most likely indicated thatthe worshiper was at peace with God and others; all the worshiper’srelationships were whole. Classified into three types, it could beused to express thanksgiving, to signify the fulfillment of a vow, orsimply to denote one’s desire to bring an offering to God outof free will. Only those who made a vow were required to offer ashelamim; the other forms were wholly optional. The worshiper broughta male or female animal (ox, sheep, or goat) without blemish, laid ahand on its head, and slaughtered it. The priest sprinkled its bloodon the sides of the altar and burned the fat surrounding the majororgans. It is described as “an aroma pleasing to the Lord.”
Thisoffering significantly recognized the covenant relationship existingbetween those who shared in it. God received the fatty portions, theofficiating priest received the right thigh, the other priests thebreast, and the remainder was shared among members of a family, clan,tribe, or some other group. According to Leviticus, a thanksgivingoffering was to be eaten on the day it was offered, and a vow orfreewill offering could be eaten within two days. Anything not eatenin the prescribed time period was to be burned.
4.The khatta’t, or sin offering, atoned for the sin of anindividual or of the nation and cleansed the sacred items in thetabernacle that had been corrupted by sin. Since a sin offering couldpurify ceremonial as well as moral uncleanness, people who wereunclean due to childbirth, skin diseases, bodily discharges, and soforth also brought them (Lev. 12–15).
Thekind of animal sacrificed and the sacrificial ritual varied with theoffender and the offense. If a priest or the entire congregationsinned, a bull was sacrificed and its blood was sprinkled before theveil of the tabernacle and on the incense altar in the holy place.The rest was burned, leaving nothing to be eaten. Leaders who sinnedsacrificed a male goat. Its blood was sprinkled on the bronze altar,and the remainder was given to the priest. A commoner brought andslaughtered a she-goat or lamb, the priest sprinkled its blood on thehorns of the altar, and the fat was burned for God and the rest givento the priests. A poor person could bring two doves or pigeons, andthe very poor could bring a grain offering. This differentiationapparently indicated that the sins of some members of the communityhad more serious consequences than others. Those in closest contactwith the tabernacle contaminated it at a deeper level, requiring amore costly sacrifice. The poor were not required to bring more thanthey could afford.
5.The ’asham, or guilt offering, provided compensation for sins.A ram without blemish was sacrificed, its blood was sprinkled on thealtar, and its fatty portions, kidneys, and liver were burned. Therest was given to the priest. In addition, the value of what wasmisappropriated plus one-fifth of its value was given to the personwronged or to the priests.
Altars.According to Leviticus, only the Aa-ron-ic priests could handle theblood or other parts of a sacrifice brought to the altar at thetabernacle. Even so, throughout Israel’s history othersacrificial altars were built. While some of these were illicitlyused for syncretistic practices, others were constructed at God’sinstruction (Josh. 8:30–35; Judg. 6:25–26). Some of thesewere used by priests making rounds so that people from differentareas could sacrifice to God (1Sam. 7:17). Others were used byindividuals who were not priests yet desired to call upon the name ofthe Lord or sacrifice for communal meals. The solitary altars weremainly used for burnt offerings and peace offerings, although grainand drink offerings also were known. Sin and guilt offerings wereoffered only at the tabernacle or temple.
Timesand purposes.The OT regulates a number of different occasions upon which regularsacrifices were to be made. Burnt offerings were presented everymorning and evening (Exod. 29:38–41; Num. 28:1–8).Additional offerings were sacrificed on the Sabbath and the new moon(Num. 28:9–15). Special sacrifices were brought to celebratethe major festivals of the year (Num. 28:16–29:39),particularly the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16). Sacrifices might alsoaccompany requests for safety or deliverance or in response to God’sdeliverance. Thus, burnt and fellowship offerings could be broughtalong with prayers that God would put an end to a plague (2Sam.24:18–25). King David brought burnt offerings and fellowshipofferings when the ark of the covenant was returned after having beencaptured by the Philistines (2Sam. 6:1–19).
Sacrificescould also be made to consecrate people or things for a special task.When the tabernacle was consecrated, special offerings were broughtfor twelve continuous days (Num. 7). Later, fellowship, burnt, andgrain offerings were sacrificed when the temple was dedicated(1Kings 8:62–64). Sin offerings were presented when apriest was ordained (Lev. 8–9). Those who completed a vowdedicating themselves as Naz-i-rites brought sacrifices to God sothat they could again become a normal member of the congregation(Num. 6:9–21). Fellowship offerings often accompanied theannouncement of or installation of a king (1Sam. 11:14–15;1Kings 1:9,25).
Althoughthe sacrificial system was intended to bring the Israelites back intofellowship with God, at times their misuse of it separated them fromhim. When his people showed more interest in sacrificial ritual thanin obeying God’s instructions, they were chastened (1Sam.15:13–22; Jer. 7:21–28). When the people of Israel wereguilty of confusing the worship of Yahweh with Canaanite fertilitycults, God sent prophets to warn them (Isa. 1:11–16; Amos4:4–5). Prophetic statements denouncing sacrificial rites wereaimed at the misuse of sacrifices rather than their existence.Jeremiah and Ezekiel were so positive about sacrificial worship thatthey looked forward to a time when it would be reestablished in itspure form (Jer. 17:26; Ezek. 43:18–27; 46:1–24).
NewTestament
TheNT indicates that the OT sacrificial system was still in place in theearly first century AD. Following directions given in Leviticus, Marybrought a sacrifice to the temple in Jerusalem so that she could bepurified after giving birth to Jesus (Luke 2:21–24; cf. Lev.12:3, 8). Mary and Joseph would have sacrificed and eaten a Passoverlamb during their annual pilgrimage to Jerusalem to celebrate theFeast of Passover. It is not recorded whether Jesus always went withthem, but he did join them at the Passover celebration when he wastwelve years old. It is safe to assume that at this time and after hegrew up, Jesus took part in the sacrifices when he visited Jerusalemto celebrate the feasts.
Jesus’disciples attend several feasts with him. In addition, after hisresurrection they frequently went to the temple to pray at the timewhen sacrifices were made. Encouraged by the Jerusalem churchleaders, Paul went to the temple to join in and pay for thepurification rites of some men who had taken a vow, perhaps to serveas Nazirites (Acts 21:23–26). He later testified before Felixthat he had returned to Jerusalem in order to bring gifts to the poorand present offerings in the temple (24:17). Although Gentilebelievers were exempt from these practices (15:1–29), earlyJewish believers clearly saw no contradiction between believing thegospel of Jesus Christ and engaging in sacrificial rituals. Theylikely followed Jewish piety until the destruction of the temple inAD 70, when all sacrifices at the temple ceased.
Evenso, Christians quickly came to understand Christ’s death as thefinal sacrifice that completed the OT system. Various NT authorsconsider the nature of Christ’s death and metaphorically relateit to OT sacrifices, but the writer of Hebrews develops this in themost detail. According to Hebrews, the sacrificial system was merelythe shadow that pointed to Jesus. Although the blood of animals couldnot adequately deal with sins, Jesus’ sacrifice could (Heb.10:1–10). Jesus is regularly identified as the sacrificial lambwhose blood purifies humanity from sin (John 1:29, 36; Rom. 8:3;1Cor. 5:7; Eph. 5:2; 1Pet. 1:19; 1John 1:7; Rev.5:6, 12; 7:14; 12:11; 13:8). His sacrifice is considered apropitiation that turns away God’s wrath (Rom. 3:25; 1John2:2).
Theend of the OT sacrificial system does not mean that those who come toGod through Jesus Christ no longer bring sacrifices. Instead ofanimal and grain offerings, spiritual sacrifices are to be made(1Pet. 2:5). Emulating their Savior, Christ’s followersshould offer themselves as living sacrifices, devoted to God (Rom.12:1). This implies that everything done in this life could beconsidered a sacrifice. Simply believing the gospel makes one anacceptable offering to God (Rom. 15:16). Labor for the sake of thegospel, or perhaps martyrdom, can be viewed as a drink offering(Phil. 2:17). The author of Hebrews identifies three types ofsacrifices that believers should offer: praise, good deeds, andsharing with those in need (13:15–16). In line with the last ofthese points, Paul counts the gift sent by the Philippian church as afragrant offering that pleases God (Phil. 4:18).
A Jewish prophet at the time of Jesus, he was the son ofpriestly parents (Zechariah and Elizabeth), executed by HerodAntipas, and identified as “John” (a common Jewish name),often with the title “the Baptist” or “theBaptizer,” the latter possibly being the older title.
Ourprimary sources on John the Baptist are the canonical Gospels,Josephus (Ant. 18.116–19), and Acts. Both Jewish and Christiansources note John’s message of the kingdom, call to baptism,and popularity. Josephus and the Gospels can speak of him withoutintroduction. In the Gospels, only Jesus is a more prominentcharacter. It is possible that the typical peasant was more familiarwith John than with Jesus, at least until after Pentecost.
TheGospels, particularly Luke, parallel the stories of John and Jesus.Both had an annunciation, a miraculous birth accompanied by praise,and a martyr’s death. Both gathered disciples, announced thekingdom, denounced the Jewish leadership, and practiced baptism. Itis easy to see how some on the periphery confused the characters(Mark 8:28).
Ministry
Dressedin a prophet’s garment of camel’s hair (Matt. 3:4; cf.2Kings 1:8; Zech. 13:4), the Baptist is noted for emerging fromthe wilderness and preaching near the Jordan. He called all listenersto repent to prepare Israel for the coming covenant of the Spirit. Heand his message were well known, disconcerting Jerusalem’spowerful elite (Mark 11:32) and enthralling the masses (Matt. 3:5–6).
Johnthe Baptist unwaveringly maintained that he was sent to introduce theSon (or Chosen One) of God, who would baptize with the Holy Spirit(John 1:33–34; cf. Matt. 3:11–12 pars.). This one was notnamed, but the Baptist was told how he would know him: “The manon whom you see the Spirit come down and remain is the one”(John 1:33). Thus, the Baptist could claim, “I myself did notknow him” (John 1:31), more likely meaning that the Baptist didnot know Jesus was the one until the Spirit descended on him (1:32).It is less likely that John meant that he had not met his cousinpreviously (Luke 1:39–45). Jesus accepts (and validates) theBaptist’s proclamation both at the beginning of his ministry(Mark 1:9) and again later (Luke 16:16; John 5:35; 10:41).
Afterhis imprisonment, the Baptist seems less certain of his earlieridentification of Jesus as the coming one (Matt. 11:2–3). Itshould also be noted that John had not disbanded his disciples. Afterhis death, some continued to preach his baptism of repentance as faraway as in Ephesus (Acts 18:24–26; 19:1–7). Similarly,Jesus’ last description of the Baptist is ambiguous. It isguarded but still complimentary (John 5:32–36; 10:41) and evenlofty: “Among those born of women there has not arisen anyonegreater than John the Baptist”; however, Jesus’ nextstatement could be interpreted to mean that the Baptist was not yetpart of the coming kingdom: “Yet whoever is least in thekingdom of heaven is greater than he” (Matt. 11:11). Likeeveryone else, John was confused by Jesus’ preaching ministry.Jesus was not acting like the Messiah they were expecting (Luke7:18–20). The Gospels offer no final verdict on the Baptist.
Message
LikeIsaiah, the Baptist’s message of restoration of the kingdommeant comfort and hope for those preparing for its arrival (Isa. 40;Mark 1:2–6) and judgment for those unprepared (Isa. 41; Matt.3:7–10; Luke 3:7–9). The return of the kingdom was by anew covenant, marked by the Spirit (Mark 1:2–8). Cleansing withwater is connected to replacing the old covenant (etched in stone)with the new (imbedded in hearts with the Spirit) by the prophets(Ezek. 36:24–28; Jer. 31), by the Baptist (John 1:31–33),by Jesus (John 3:5), and by early Christians (2Cor. 3; Heb.9–10). Preparing (Matt. 3:3) meant repenting and living inpiety and justice as a member of the kingdom (Luke 3:10–14).This commitment of renewed faithfulness was marked by one’s own(ethical) cleansing, symbolized in baptism. While ritual lustrationswere somewhat common for initiation or membership in a group, Johnthe Baptist called all who would devote themselves to God to repent,confess their sins, and be baptized (Mark 1:4–5).
TheSynoptic Gospels portray Jesus and John as allies in announcing thekingdom. It has been argued that the Fourth Gospel has ananti-Baptist polemic. Because of historical elements (in Ephesus?),it may be more accurate to say that the Fourth Gospel strives toclarify the Baptist’s place in salvation history. He issubordinate to Jesus by divine design (John 1–5) and by deed(John 10:41). He was the Elijah who was to come before the Christ(Matt. 11:14).
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesusfollowers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christembodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in humanhistory.
Introduction
Name.Early Christians combined the name “Jesus” with the title“Christ” (Acts 5:42; NIV: “Messiah”). Thename “Jesus,” from the Hebrew Yehoshua or Yeshua, was acommon male name in first-century Judaism. The title “Christ”is from the Greek christos, a translation of the Hebrew mashiakh(“anointed one, messiah”). Christians eventually werenamed after Jesus’ title (Acts 11:26). During the ministry ofJesus, Peter was the first disciple to recognize Jesus as the Messiah(Matt. 16:16; Mark 9:29; Luke 9:20).
Sources.From the viewpoint of Christianity, the life and ministry of Jesusconstitute the turning point in human history. From a historicalperspective, ample early source materials would be expected. Indeed,both Christian and non-Christian first-century and earlysecond-century literary sources are extant, but they are few innumber. In part, this low incidence is due to society’s initialresistance to the Jesus followers’ movement. The ancient Romanhistorian Tacitus called Christianity “a superstition,”since its beliefs did not fit with the culture’s prevailingworldview and thus were considered antisocial. Early literary sourcestherefore are either in-group documents or allusions in non-Christiansources.
TheNT Gospels are the principal sources for the life and ministry ofJesus. They consist of Matthew, Mark, Luke (the Synoptic Gospels),and John. Most scholars adhere to the so-called Four SourceHypothesis. In this theory, Mark was written first and was used as asource by Matthew and Luke, who also used the sayings source Q (fromGerman Quelle, meaning “source”) as well as their ownindividual sources M (Matthew) and L (Luke). John used additionalsources.
Theearly church tried to put together singular accounts, so-calledGospel harmonies, of the life of Jesus. The Gospel of the Ebionitesrepresents one such attempt based on the Synoptic Gospels. Anotherharmony, the Diatessaron, based on all four Gospels, was producedaround AD 170 by Tatian. Additional source materials concerning thelife of Christ are provided in the NT in texts such as Acts, thePauline Epistles, the General Epistles, and the Revelation of John.Paul wrote to the Galatians, “But when the time had fully come,God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under law” (Gal. 4:4).The first narrative about Jesus by the Christian community was apassion narrative, the account of his death and resurrection. Thefirst extant references to this tradition are found in Paul’sletters (1Cor. 2:2; Gal. 3:1). The resurrection was recognizedfrom the beginning as the cornerstone of the Christian faith (1Cor.15:13–14).
Amongnon-Christian sources, the earliest reference to Jesus is found in aletter written circa AD 112 by Pliny the Younger, the Roman governorof Bithynia-Pontus (Ep. 10.96). The Roman historian Tacitus mentionsChristians and Jesus around AD 115 in his famous work about thehistory of Rome (Ann. 15.44). Another Roman historian, Suetonius,wrote around the same time concerning unrest among the Jews in Romebecause of a certain “Chrestos” (Claud. 25.4). Somescholars conclude that “Chrestos” is a misspelling of“Christos,” a reference to Jesus.
TheJewish author Josephus (first century AD) mentions Jesus in a storyabout the Jewish high priest Ananus and James the brother of Jesus(Ant. 20.200). A controversial reference to Jesus appears in adifferent part of the same work, where Josephus affirms that Jesus isthe Messiah and that he rose from the dead (Ant. 18.63–64). Themajority of scholars consider this passage to be authentic butheavily edited by later Christian copyists. Another Jewish source,the Talmud, also mentions Jesus in several places, but thesereferences are very late and of little historical value.
NoncanonicalGospels that mention Jesus include, for example, the Infancy Gospelof Thomas, the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Peter, the Gospel ofJames, the Gospel of Judas Iscariot, the Gospel of the Hebrews, theEgerton Gospel, and the Gospel of Judas. Although some of these maycontain an occasional authentic saying or event, for the most partthey are late and unreliable.
Jesus’Life
Birthand childhood. TheGospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehemduring the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesuswas probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’sdeath (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of avirginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18;Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governorQuirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place inBethlehem (2:1–5). Both the census and the governorship at thetime of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars.Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to eitherconfirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must bedetermined on the basis of one’s view regarding the generalreliability of the Gospel tradition.
Onthe eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keepingwith the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus”(Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home ofhis parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel ofLuke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth instrength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke alsocontains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Jesuswas born in a lower socioeconomic setting. His parents offered atemple sacrifice appropriate for those who could not afford tosacrifice a sheep (Luke 2:22–24; cf. Lev. 12:8). Joseph, Jesus’earthly father, was a carpenter or an artisan in wood, stone, ormetal (Matt. 13:55). From a geographical perspective, Nazareth wasnot a prominent place for settling, since it lacked fertile ground.Jesus’ disciple Nathanael expressed an apparently commonfirst-century sentiment concerning Nazareth: “Nazareth! Cananything good come from there?” (John 1:46).
Jesuswas also born in a context of scandal. Questions of illegitimacy weresurely raised, since his mother Mary was discovered to be pregnantbefore her marriage to Joseph. According to Matthew, only theintervention of an angel convinced Joseph not to break his betrothal(Matt. 1:18–24). Jesus’ birth took place in Bethlehem,far from his parents’ home in Nazareth. According to kinshiphospitality customs, Joseph and Mary would have expected to stay withdistant relatives in Bethlehem. It is likely that they were unwelcomebecause of Jesus’ status as an illegitimate child; thus Maryhad to give birth elsewhere and place the infant Jesus in a feedingtrough (Luke 2:7). A similar response was seen years later inNazareth when Jesus was identified as “Mary’s son”(Mark 6:3) rather than through his paternal line, thereby shaming himas one who was born an illegitimate child. Jesus was likewiserejected at the end of his life as the crowds cried, “Crucifyhim!” (Matt. 27:22–23; Mark 15:13–14; Luke 23:21;John 19:6, 15). When Jesus was arrested, most of his followers fled(Matt. 26:56; Mark 14:50–52), and a core disciple, Peter,vehemently denied knowing him (Matt. 26:69–74; Mark 14:66–71;Luke 22:55–60; John 18:15–17, 25–27). His ownsiblings did not believe in him (John 7:5) and were evidently ashamedof his fate, since from the cross Jesus placed the care of his motherinto the hands of “the disciple whom he loved” (19:26–27)rather than the next brother in line, as was customary.
Baptism,temptation, and start of ministry.After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring tohim as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22).Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instantministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into thewilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11;Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that thetemptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Lukeidentify three specific temptations by the devil, though their orderfor the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesuswas tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine interventionafter jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’skingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation,quoting Scripture in response.
Matthewand Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum inGalilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13;Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirtyyears of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity orperhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of theLevites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning ofJesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples andthe sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Jesus’public ministry: chronology.Jesus’ ministry started in Galilee, probably around AD 27/28,and ended with his death around AD 30 in Jerusalem. The temple hadbeen forty-six years in construction (generally interpreted as thetemple itself and the wider temple complex) when Jesus drove out themoney changers (John 2:20). According to Josephus, the rebuilding andexpansion of the second temple had started in 20/19 BC, during theeighteenth year of Herod’s reign (Ant. 15.380). The ministry ofJohn the Baptist had commenced in the fifteenth year of Tiberius(Luke 3:1–2), who had become a coregent in AD 11/12. From thesedates of the start of the temple building and the correlation of thereign of Tiberius to John the Baptist’s ministry, the onset ofJesus’ ministry can probably be dated to AD 27/28.
TheGospel of John mentions three Passovers and another unnamed feast inJohn 5:1. The length of Jesus’ ministry thus extended overthree or four Passovers, equaling about three or three and a halfyears. Passover, which took place on the fifteenth of Nisan, came ona Friday in AD 30 and 33. The year of Jesus’ death wastherefore probably AD 30.
Jesus’ministry years may be divided broadly into his Galilean and hisJudean ministries. The Synoptic Gospels describe the ministry inGalilee from various angles but converge again as Jesus enters Judea.
Galileanministry.The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and aroundGalilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that thekingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment ofprophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ firstteaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30);the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for hiscalling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection andsuffering.
AllGospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in hisGalilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioningof the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers isrecorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministryis the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, inparticular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synopticsfocus on healings and exorcisms.
DuringJesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with hisidentity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority(Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family(3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner ofBeelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesustold parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growingkingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humblebeginnings (4:1–32).
TheSynoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful.No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority orability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized manydemons (Mark 5:1–13), raised the dead (Mark 5:35–42), fedfive thousand (Mark 6:30–44), and walked on water (Mark6:48–49).
Inthe later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew andtraveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are notwritten with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns toGalilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey toJerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fearresolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee,where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ discipleswith lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed thePharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents(7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demandinga sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, whoconfessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus didprovide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesuswithdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician womanrequested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sentonly to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans hadlong resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality thatallotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere“crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Eventhe dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,”Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-muteman in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’sconfession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The citywas the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judeanministry.Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry ashe resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually ledto his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem intothree phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27).The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of thejourney. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, andthe demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem(Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45;Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journeytoward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvationand judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase ofthe journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are themain themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Socialconflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposteinteractions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel(Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomicfeathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who hadlittle value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16;Luke 18:15–17).
PassionWeek, death, and resurrection. Eachof the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with thecrowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Lukedescribes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during whichJesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
InJerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17).Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because thewhole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “beganlooking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segmentof Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions(12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation(12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s owndestruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, JudasIscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’arrest (14:10–11).
Atthe Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a newcovenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29;Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned thedisciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and laterhe prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agonyand submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42;Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial,crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15;Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18).Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission bymaking disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8)and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return(Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
TheIdentity of Jesus Christ
Variousaspects of Jesus’ identity are stressed in the four NT Gospels,depending on their target audiences. In the Gospels the witnesses toJesus’ ministry are portrayed as constantly questioning andexamining his identity (Matt. 11:2–5; 12:24; 26:63; 27:11; Mark3:22; 8:11; 11:28; 14:61; Luke 7:18–20; 11:15; 22:67, 70;23:39; John 7:20, 25–27; 18:37). Only beings of the spiritualrealm are certain of his divinity (Mark 1:34; 3:11; Luke 4:41). AtJesus’ baptism, God referred to him as his Son, whom he loved(Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Likewise, when Jesus wastransfigured in the presence of Peter, James, and John, a voiceaffirmed, “This is my Son, whom I love” (Matt. 17:5; Mark9:7). At the moment of his death, the questioning of Jesus’identity culminated in a confession by a Roman centurion and otherguards: “Surely he was the Son of God!” (Matt. 27:54; cf.Mark 15:39).
Miracleworker.In the first-century setting, folk healers and miracle workers werepart of the fabric of society. Jesus, however, performed signs andmiracles in order to demonstrate the authority of the kingdom of Godover various realms: disease, illness, the spiritual world, nature,and even future events. Especially in the Gospel of John, Jesus’signs and miracles are used to show his authority and thus hisidentity.
Nochallenge superseded Jesus’ authority. Among his ample miraclesand signs, he changed water into wine (John 2:7–9), calmed astorm in the sea (Matt. 8:23–27; Mark 4:35–39; Luke8:22–25), exorcized demons (Matt. 9:32–34; Mark 5:1–13;Luke 9:42–43), healed the sick (Mark 1:40–44), raised thedead (Matt. 9:23–25; Mark 5:35–42; Luke 7:1–16;8:49–54; John 11:17, 38–44), performed miraculousfeedings (Matt. 14:17–21; 15:34–38; Mark 6:30–44;8:5–9; Luke 9:10–17; John 6:8–13), and walked onwater (Matt. 14:25–26; Mark 6:48–49; John 6:19).
ThePharisees requested miracles as evidence of his authority (Mark8:11–12). Jesus refused, claiming that a wicked and adulterousgeneration asks for a miraculous sign (Matt. 12:38–39; 16:1–4).The only sign that he would give was the sign of Jonah—hisdeath and resurrection three days later—a personal sacrifice,taking upon himself the judgment of the world (Matt. 12:39–41).
Rabbi/teacher.Jesus’ teaching style was similar to other first-century rabbisor Pharisees (Mark 9:5; 10:51; John 1:38; 3:2). What distinguishedhim was that he spoke with great personal authority (Matt. 5:22, 28,32, 39, 44; Mark 1:22). Like other rabbis of his day, Jesus gathereddisciples. He called these men to observe his lifestyle and to joinhim in his ministry of teaching, healing, and exorcism (Matt. 10:1–4;Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16).
Jesusused a variety of teaching methods. He frequently spoke in parables(Matt. 6:24; 13:24–52; 18:10–14, 23–35;21:28–22:14; 24:32–36, 45–51; 25:14–30; Mark4:1–34; 12:1–12; 13:28–34; Luke 8:4–18;12:41–46; 13:18–21; 14:15–24; 15:1–16:15,19–31; 18:1–14; 19:11–27; 20:9–19; 21:29–33),used figures of speech (John 10:9), hyperbole (Matt. 19:24; Mark10:25; Luke 18:25), argumentation (Matt. 26:11), object lessons(Matt. 24:32), frequent repetition (Matt. 13:44–47; Luke13:18–21), practical examples, and personal guidance.
Majorthemes in Jesus’ teaching include the kingdom of God, the costof discipleship, internal righteousness, the end of the age, hisidentity, his mission, and his approaching death. In his teachings,observance of Torah was given new context and meaning because God’skingdom had “come near” (Matt. 3:2). Jesus had come tofulfill the law (Matt. 5:17).
Jesus’teaching ministry often took place amid social conflict. Theseconflicts were couched in so-called challenge-riposte interactions inwhich the honor status of those involved was at stake. Jesus usedthese interactions as teachable moments. When questioned, Jesus gavereplies that reveal omniscience or intimate knowledge of God’swill, especially in the Gospel of John. In the Synoptic Gospels,Jesus’ answers are both ethical and practical in nature. TheSynoptics portray Jesus as challenged repeatedly with accusations ofviolating customs specified in the Jewish law. Jesus’ answersto such accusations often echoed the essence of 1Sam. 15:22,“To obey is better than sacrifice,” phrased by Jesus as“I desire mercy, not sacrifice” (Matt. 9:13; 12:7). Anoverall “better than” ethic was common in Jesus’public teaching.
TheSermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7) contains a “better than”ethic in which internal obedience is better than mere outwardobedience. For example, Jesus said that anger without cause is equalto murder (Matt. 5:21–22), that looking at a woman lustfullyamounts to adultery (Matt. 5:28), and that instead of revengingwrongs one must reciprocate with love (Matt. 5:38–48). Jesusvalued compassion above traditions and customs, even those containedwithin the OT law. He desired internal obedience above the letter ofthe law.
Jesus’teachings found their authority in the reality of God’simminent kingdom (Matt. 3:2; 10:7; Mark 1:15; Luke 10:9),necessitating repentance (Matt. 3:2), belief (Mark 1:15), dependence(Matt. 18:3–5; Mark 10:15), and loyalty to a new community—thefamily of Jesus followers (Mark 3:34; 10:29–30). Jesus urged,“Seek first [God’s] kingdom and his righteousness”(Matt. 6:33). Preaching with such urgency was common among propheticteachers of the intertestamental period. Jesus, however, had his owngrounds for urgency. He held that God deeply valued all humans (Matt.10:31) and would bring judgment swiftly (Matt. 25:31–46).
Examplesof a “greater good” ethic in the Synoptics include theoccasions when Jesus ate with sinners (Mark 2:16–17). Jesusused an aphorism in response to accusations about his associationswith sinners, saying, “It is not the healthy who need a doctor,but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners”(Mark 2:17). He advocated harvesting and healing on the Sabbath (Mark2:23–28; 3:1–6), and when he was accused of breaking thelaw, he pointed to an OT exception (1Sam. 21:1–6) todeclare compassion appropriate for the Sabbath. Jesus also appliedthe “greater good” ethic in the case of divorce, sincewomen suffered the societal stigma of adultery and commonly becameoutcasts following divorce (Matt. 19:8–9; Mark 10:5–9).
Jesus’kingdom teachings were simultaneously spiritual, ethical, andeschatological in application. The teachings were aimed at internaltransformation (Matt. 5:3–9; 18:3; Mark 10:15) and spurring onlove (Matt. 5:44; 7:21). The Spirit of the Lord had called Jesus tobless the hurting ones as they aspired to a godly character. Jesustaught, “Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father isperfect” (Matt. 5:48), and “Be merciful, just as yourFather is merciful” (Luke 6:36). The “blessed” onesin Jesus’ teachings are poor of spirit, peace driven, mournful,and hungry for righteousness, consumed with emulating godlycharacter.
Somescholars believe that Jesus promoted an “interim ethic”for the kingdom, intended only for a short period prior to the end oftime. However, he was explicit regarding the longevity of histeachings: “Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words willnever pass away” (Matt. 24:35; Luke 16:17).
Messiah.The concept of an anointed one, a messiah, who would restore theglories of David’s kingdom and bring political stability wascommon in Jewish expectation. Both before and after the Babyloniancaptivity, many Jews longed for one who would bring peace andprotection. Israel’s prophets had spoken of a coming deliverer,one who would restore David’s kingdom and reign in justice andrighteousness (2Sam. 7:11–16; Isa. 9:1–7; 11:1–16;Jer. 23:5–6; 33:15–16; Ezek. 37:25; Dan. 2:44; Mic. 5:2;Zech. 9:9). Isaiah’s description of the servant (Isa. 53) whosesuffering healed the nation provided a slightly different angle ofexpectation in terms of a deliverer.
Jesus’authority and popularity as a miracle worker called up messianicimages in first-century Jewish minds. On several occasions hearerscalled him “Son of David,” hoping for the Messiah (Matt.12:23; 21:9). Simon Peter was the first follower who confessed Jesusas the Christ, the “Messiah” (Matt. 16:16; Mark 8:29). Inline with Isaiah’s model of the Suffering Servant, Jesusfocused not on political ends but rather on spiritual regenerationthrough his own sacrificial death (Mark 10:45).
Eschatologicalprophet.Many scholars claim that Jesus is best understood as a Jewishapocalypticist, an eschatological prophet who expected God tointervene in history, destroy the wicked, and bring in the kingdom ofGod. Central in this understanding are Jesus’ propheciesconcerning the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem (Matt. 24:1–2,15–22; Mark 13:1; Luke 21:5–24; John 2:19; Acts 6:14). Inaddition, it is noted that Jesus had twelve disciples, representativeof the twelve tribes of Israel (Matt. 19:2–28; Luke 22:23–30).Certain of Jesus’ parables, those with apocalyptic images ofcoming judgment, present Jesus as an eschatological prophet (Matt.24:45–25:30; Luke 12:41–46; 19:11–27).
SufferingSon of God.Jesus’ first recorded teaching in a synagogue in Nazareth wasparadigmatic (Luke 4:16–21). He attributed the reading, Isa.61:1–2, to his personal calling to serve, and in doing so herevealed a trajectory of suffering. The Gospel of Mark likewise aptlyportrays Jesus as the suffering Son of God. Jesus’ ownteachings incorporated his upcoming suffering (Mark 8:31; 9:12–13,31; 10:33–34). He summarized his mission by declaring, “TheSon of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give hislife as a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45). His earthly careerended with a trial in Jerusalem consisting of both Roman and Jewishcomponents (Matt. 26:57–68; 27:1–31; Mark 14:53–65;15:1–20; Luke 22:54–23:25; John 18:19–24;18:28–19:16). He was insulted, scourged, mocked, and crucified.
Jesus’suffering culminated in his humiliating death by crucifixion (Matt.27:33–50; Mark 15:22–37; Luke 23:33–46; John19:16–30). Crucifixion was a death of unimaginable horror,bringing shame and humiliation to the victim and his family. Anyonehanging on a tree was considered cursed (Deut. 21:23; Gal. 3:13).Thus, especially in a Jewish society, anyone associated with acrucified person bore the shame of following one who was executed asa lowly slave and left as a cursed corpse. The apostle Paul referredto this shame of the cross when he stated, “I am not ashamed ofthe gospel” (Rom. 1:16).
ExaltedLord.Jesus had prophesied that he would rise again (Matt. 16:21; 17:9, 23;20:19; 27:63; Mark 8:31; 9:9, 31; 10:34; Luke 9:22; 18:33; 24:7, 46).The testimony of the Synoptics is that the resurrection of JesusChrist indeed occurred on the third day, Christ having died on Friday(Mark 15:42–45; Luke 23:52–54; John 19:30–33) andrisen again on Sunday (Matt. 28:1–7; Mark 16:2–7; Luke24:1–7; John 20:1–16). The resurrected Jesus waswitnessed by the women (Matt. 28:8–9), the eleven disciples(Matt. 28:16–17; Luke 24:36–43), and travelers on theroad to Emmaus (Luke 24:31–32). According to Paul, he appearedto as many as five hundred others (1Cor. 15:6). He appeared inbodily form, spoke, showed his scars, and ate (Luke 24:39–43;John 20:27; Acts 1:4). After forty postresurrection days, Jesusascended into the heavenly realm (Acts 1:9).
Asmuch as Jesus’ death was the epitome of shame, his victory overdeath was his ultimate exaltation (Phil. 2:5–11). At Pentecost,Peter proclaimed that in the resurrection God fulfilled OT promises(Ps. 16:10) by raising his Son from the grave (Acts 2:30–31).Furthermore, Christ provided freedom from the law through hisresurrection (Rom. 5:13–14), God’s approval of his lifeand work (Phil. 2:8–9), and God’s designation of him asLord over all the earth, the living and the dead (Acts 17:30–31;Phil. 2:10; Heb. 1:3), and over all his enemies (Eph. 1:20–23).
Jesus’exaltation commenced the beginning of forgiveness and justification(Luke 24:46–47; Acts 13:30–39; Rom. 4:25) and hisintercession for the people of God (Rom. 8:34). His ascensionsignaled the coming of the Holy Spirit as comforter and teacher (John14:26; Acts 2:33) and was accompanied by the promise of his return inglory (Luke 24:51), at which time he will render judgment (Matt.19:28; 24:31; Rev. 20:11–15) and establish his eternal kingdom(1Cor. 15:24; 2Tim. 4:1; Rev. 11:15; 22:5).
Jesus’Purpose and Community
Inthe Gospel of Matthew, Jesus is the long-awaited Messiah, whopreaches the good news of the kingdom, urging people to repent(4:17–23). Repentance and belief allow one to enter thekingdom. The call into the kingdom is a call into a new covenant, onemade in Jesus’ blood (26:28).
Inthe prologue to the Gospel of Mark, the narrator reveals the identityof Jesus (1:1). Jesus is presented as the one who brings good tidingsof salvation (cf. Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1). The centrality of thegospel, the good news (Mark 1:14–15), is evident.
Lukelikewise presents the preaching of the good news as a main purpose ofJesus’ ministry (4:43). The content of this good news is thekingdom of God (4:43; 8:1; 16:16). When the disciples of John theBaptist asked Jesus if he was the one who was to come (7:20), Jesusanswered, “Go back and report to John what you have seen andheard: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosyare cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good newsis proclaimed to the poor” (7:22). The kingdom of God, aspresented in Luke, brings freedom for the prisoners, recovery ofsight for the blind, and release for the oppressed (4:18). Jesus’healings and exorcisms announce the coming kingdom of God alreadypresent in the ministry of Jesus (4:40–44; 6:18–20;8:1–2; 9:2; 10:8–9).
Inthe Gospel of John, Jesus testifies to the good news by way of signsthroughout his ministry. These signs point to Jesus’ glory, hisidentity, and the significance of his ministry. Jesus is the Messiah,the Son of God, who offers eternal and abundant life. This abundantlife is lived out in community.
Inthe Gospel of John, the disciples of Jesus represent the community ofGod (17:21). The disciples did not belong to the world, but theycontinued to live in the world (17:14–16). Throughout hisministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a callto loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38;Luke 9:23–26), a call to the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50;Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock Iwill build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call tocommunity. Jesus’ presence as the head of the community wasreplaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18).
Jesus’ministry continued in the community of Jesus’ followers, God’sfamily—the church. Entrance into the community was obtained byadopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and through theinitiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26;Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–62; John 1:12; 3:16;10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9).
TheQuests for the Historical Jesus
Thequest for the historical Jesus, or seeking who Jesus was from ahistorical perspective, is a modern phenomenon deemed necessary byscholars who claim that the NT Gospels were written long after Jesus’death and were heavily influenced by the post-Easter understanding ofthe church.
Thebeginning of this quest is often dated to 1770, when the lecturenotes of Hermann Samuel Reimarus were published posthumously.Reimarus had launched an inquiry into the identity of Jesus thatrejected as inauthentic all supernatural elements in the Gospels. Heconcluded that the disciples invented Jesus’ miracles,prophecies, ritualistic religion, and resurrection. Reimarus’sconclusions were not widely accepted, but they set off a flurry ofrationalistic research into the historical Jesus that continuedthroughout the nineteenth century. This became known as the “firstquest” for the historical Jesus.
In1906 German theologian Albert Schweit-zer published The Quest of theHistorical Jesus (German title: Von Reimarus zu Wrede: EineGeschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung), a scathing indictment of thefirst quest. Schweitzer’s work showed that nineteenth-centuryresearchers re-created Jesus in their own image, transforming thehistorical Jesus into a modern philanthropist preaching aninoffensive message of love and brotherhood. Schweitzer’sconclusions marked the beginning of the end for this first quest.Schweitzer himself concluded that the historical Jesus was aneschatological prophet whose purposes failed during his last days inJerusalem.
Withthe demise of the first quest, some NT scholars, such as RudolfBultmann, rejected any claim to being able to discover the historicalJesus. This trend continued until 1953, when some of Bultmann’sformer students launched what has come to be known as the “newquest” for the historical Jesus (1953–c. 1970). Thisquest created new interest in the historical Jesus but was stilldominated by the view that the portrait of Jesus in the Gospels islargely a creation of the church in a post-Easter setting.
Asthe rebuilding years of the post–World WarII era wanedand scholars started to reap academic fruit from major archaeologicalfinds such as the DSS, research on the historical Jesus moved on towhat has been called the “third quest.” This quest seeksespecially to research and understand Jesus in his social andcultural setting.
The words “sacrifice” and “offering”often are used interchangeably, but “offering” refers toa gift more generally, while “sacrifice” indicates a giftconsecrated for a divine being. In biblical Hebrew “sacrifice”is more narrowly equated with the peace offering. All other“sacrifices” are referred to as gifts. Sacrifices wereoffered to honor God, thanking him for his goodness. More important,they enabled persons to be made right with God by atoning for theirsins. Whereas sin upset the fellowship God desired to have withpeople and kindled his wrath, sacrifice restored the relationship.
OldTestament
OTofferings included cereals (whether the grain was whole, ground intoflour, or mixed with other elements), liquids (wine, oil, or water),and animals (or parts thereof, such as the blood and fat). Althoughthe Bible acknowledges that other ancient Near Eastern people hadtheir own sacrificial rites, it rejects them as unworthy of the Godof Israel. The people of God therefore were instructed how tosacrifice properly while at Sinai. Even so, offerings and sacrificesare recorded as taking place before the law was given.
Priorto the law.Cain and Abel brought the earliest offerings. Contrary to a commoninterpretation, Cain’s offering was not rejected because it didnot include blood; the Hebrew word for the brothers’ gifts,minkhah,usually denotes grain offerings. A better conclusion is that Cainonly brought some of his produce (no mention of firstfruits), whileAbel brought the best of the best (the fat portions from thefirstborn of the flock).
Immediatelyafter the flood, Noah built an altar and presented the first burntoffering mentioned in the Bible (Gen. 8:20). That this (and othersacrifices) was received as a “pleasing aroma” indicatesthat God approved of and accepted it. It is significant thatimmediately after the offering, God made a covenant with Noah, hisdescendants, and every living creature. Sacrifices are closelyrelated to covenant relationships, as can be seen in the story ofAbraham enacting a covenant ceremony in Gen. 15 and in Israelreceiving many instructions about sacrifice while at Sinai (cf. Gen.31:43–54).
Sacrificiallaws in Leviticus.Sacrificial laws are found throughout the Pentateuch, the most beingin Lev. 1–7. As Leviticus makes clear, Israel understoodsacrifice to have a number of different purposes. It was a means tobring a gift to God, to express communion with him and others in thecommunity, to consecrate something or someone for God’s use,and to deal with personal uncleanness or sin. These ideas aredeveloped in the descriptions of the different sacrifices that Israelwas required to bring to God. In general, the sacrifices were made ofclean animals raised by the one making the offering or of grain orwine produced by the person. In some cases, the offering wasconnected with the person’s economic ability, a poorer personbeing allowed to present doves or even cereal if a lamb or goat wasunaffordable for a sin offering (Lev. 5:6–13). In all cases,only the best—what was “without defect”—wasto be offered.
Priestas mediator.Three parties were involved in the sacrifices: the worshiper, thepriest, and God. The worshiper—the person who had sinned orbecome unclean in some way—brought an animal to God, laid ahand upon it, and then killed it. Whether the animal’s deathrepresents the death that the worshiper deserves due to sin orwhether the sin is transferred to the animal that bears it instead isunclear. The priest served as a mediator who offered the blood of thesacrifice to God and, in many instances, burned all or part of theoffering. In response to the offering, God, who had graciously giventhe sacrificial system so that those who had sinned could be restoredto fellowship with him, forgave the person. Uniquely in the ancientworld, Israelite sacrifices were not considered magical acts thatcould manipulate God to act on behalf of the worshiper. Presenting animproper sacrifice while exhibiting an improper attitude or motiveresulted in rejection.
Typesof sacrifices.Leviticus introduced five main sacrifices: the ’olah (1:1–17;6:8–18), the minkhah (2:1–16; 6:14–23), theshelamim (3:1–17; 7:11–36), the khatta’t(4:1–5:13), and the ’asham (5:14–6:7). Most ofthese focused on uncleanness or sin. The worshiper who brought suchan offering was not allowed to eat any of it, as it was wholly givento God. Even when priests were allowed to eat part of a sacrifice,their portion was “waved” before God, indicating that itbelonged to him.
1.The ’olah, or burnt offering, is the basic OT sacrificeconnected with atonement for sin (Lev. 1:4). When rightly offered, itwas accepted as “an aroma pleasing to the Lord.” Theworshiper brought a male animal (young bull, sheep, goat, dove, oryoung pigeon) without blemish, laid a hand upon it, and then killedit. After the priest sprinkled some of the blood on the altar, therest was burned up.
2.The minkhah is simply a gift or offering. The Hebrew word is oftenused for a present given to another person or tribute to a ruler.When used of sacrifice, it is usually rendered as “grainoffering” or “meal offering.” A minkhah can, onoccasion, include flesh or fat (Gen. 4:4; Judg. 6:18–21).Considered “an aroma pleasing to the Lord,” it consistedof unground grain or fine flour mixed with oil and incense and waspresented either cooked or uncooked. Part of the offering was burnedas a “memorial portion,” the rest being given to thepriests (Lev. 2:1–3). It usually was accompanied by a drinkoffering—wine poured out on the altar. Grain offeringsfrequently complemented burnt offerings or fellowship offerings. Theshowbread may have been considered a grain offering.
3.The shelamim (NIV: “fellowship offering”) hastraditionally been called the “peace offering,” as theterm is related to shalom. This offering most likely indicated thatthe worshiper was at peace with God and others; all the worshiper’srelationships were whole. Classified into three types, it could beused to express thanksgiving, to signify the fulfillment of a vow, orsimply to denote one’s desire to bring an offering to God outof free will. Only those who made a vow were required to offer ashelamim; the other forms were wholly optional. The worshiper broughta male or female animal (ox, sheep, or goat) without blemish, laid ahand on its head, and slaughtered it. The priest sprinkled its bloodon the sides of the altar and burned the fat surrounding the majororgans. It is described as “an aroma pleasing to the Lord.”
Thisoffering significantly recognized the covenant relationship existingbetween those who shared in it. God received the fatty portions, theofficiating priest received the right thigh, the other priests thebreast, and the remainder was shared among members of a family, clan,tribe, or some other group. According to Leviticus, a thanksgivingoffering was to be eaten on the day it was offered, and a vow orfreewill offering could be eaten within two days. Anything not eatenin the prescribed time period was to be burned.
4.The khatta’t, or sin offering, atoned for the sin of anindividual or of the nation and cleansed the sacred items in thetabernacle that had been corrupted by sin. Since a sin offering couldpurify ceremonial as well as moral uncleanness, people who wereunclean due to childbirth, skin diseases, bodily discharges, and soforth also brought them (Lev. 12–15).
Thekind of animal sacrificed and the sacrificial ritual varied with theoffender and the offense. If a priest or the entire congregationsinned, a bull was sacrificed and its blood was sprinkled before theveil of the tabernacle and on the incense altar in the holy place.The rest was burned, leaving nothing to be eaten. Leaders who sinnedsacrificed a male goat. Its blood was sprinkled on the bronze altar,and the remainder was given to the priest. A commoner brought andslaughtered a she-goat or lamb, the priest sprinkled its blood on thehorns of the altar, and the fat was burned for God and the rest givento the priests. A poor person could bring two doves or pigeons, andthe very poor could bring a grain offering. This differentiationapparently indicated that the sins of some members of the communityhad more serious consequences than others. Those in closest contactwith the tabernacle contaminated it at a deeper level, requiring amore costly sacrifice. The poor were not required to bring more thanthey could afford.
5.The ’asham, or guilt offering, provided compensation for sins.A ram without blemish was sacrificed, its blood was sprinkled on thealtar, and its fatty portions, kidneys, and liver were burned. Therest was given to the priest. In addition, the value of what wasmisappropriated plus one-fifth of its value was given to the personwronged or to the priests.
Altars.According to Leviticus, only the Aa-ron-ic priests could handle theblood or other parts of a sacrifice brought to the altar at thetabernacle. Even so, throughout Israel’s history othersacrificial altars were built. While some of these were illicitlyused for syncretistic practices, others were constructed at God’sinstruction (Josh. 8:30–35; Judg. 6:25–26). Some of thesewere used by priests making rounds so that people from differentareas could sacrifice to God (1Sam. 7:17). Others were used byindividuals who were not priests yet desired to call upon the name ofthe Lord or sacrifice for communal meals. The solitary altars weremainly used for burnt offerings and peace offerings, although grainand drink offerings also were known. Sin and guilt offerings wereoffered only at the tabernacle or temple.
Timesand purposes.The OT regulates a number of different occasions upon which regularsacrifices were to be made. Burnt offerings were presented everymorning and evening (Exod. 29:38–41; Num. 28:1–8).Additional offerings were sacrificed on the Sabbath and the new moon(Num. 28:9–15). Special sacrifices were brought to celebratethe major festivals of the year (Num. 28:16–29:39),particularly the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16). Sacrifices might alsoaccompany requests for safety or deliverance or in response to God’sdeliverance. Thus, burnt and fellowship offerings could be broughtalong with prayers that God would put an end to a plague (2Sam.24:18–25). King David brought burnt offerings and fellowshipofferings when the ark of the covenant was returned after having beencaptured by the Philistines (2Sam. 6:1–19).
Sacrificescould also be made to consecrate people or things for a special task.When the tabernacle was consecrated, special offerings were broughtfor twelve continuous days (Num. 7). Later, fellowship, burnt, andgrain offerings were sacrificed when the temple was dedicated(1Kings 8:62–64). Sin offerings were presented when apriest was ordained (Lev. 8–9). Those who completed a vowdedicating themselves as Naz-i-rites brought sacrifices to God sothat they could again become a normal member of the congregation(Num. 6:9–21). Fellowship offerings often accompanied theannouncement of or installation of a king (1Sam. 11:14–15;1Kings 1:9,25).
Althoughthe sacrificial system was intended to bring the Israelites back intofellowship with God, at times their misuse of it separated them fromhim. When his people showed more interest in sacrificial ritual thanin obeying God’s instructions, they were chastened (1Sam.15:13–22; Jer. 7:21–28). When the people of Israel wereguilty of confusing the worship of Yahweh with Canaanite fertilitycults, God sent prophets to warn them (Isa. 1:11–16; Amos4:4–5). Prophetic statements denouncing sacrificial rites wereaimed at the misuse of sacrifices rather than their existence.Jeremiah and Ezekiel were so positive about sacrificial worship thatthey looked forward to a time when it would be reestablished in itspure form (Jer. 17:26; Ezek. 43:18–27; 46:1–24).
NewTestament
TheNT indicates that the OT sacrificial system was still in place in theearly first century AD. Following directions given in Leviticus, Marybrought a sacrifice to the temple in Jerusalem so that she could bepurified after giving birth to Jesus (Luke 2:21–24; cf. Lev.12:3, 8). Mary and Joseph would have sacrificed and eaten a Passoverlamb during their annual pilgrimage to Jerusalem to celebrate theFeast of Passover. It is not recorded whether Jesus always went withthem, but he did join them at the Passover celebration when he wastwelve years old. It is safe to assume that at this time and after hegrew up, Jesus took part in the sacrifices when he visited Jerusalemto celebrate the feasts.
Jesus’disciples attend several feasts with him. In addition, after hisresurrection they frequently went to the temple to pray at the timewhen sacrifices were made. Encouraged by the Jerusalem churchleaders, Paul went to the temple to join in and pay for thepurification rites of some men who had taken a vow, perhaps to serveas Nazirites (Acts 21:23–26). He later testified before Felixthat he had returned to Jerusalem in order to bring gifts to the poorand present offerings in the temple (24:17). Although Gentilebelievers were exempt from these practices (15:1–29), earlyJewish believers clearly saw no contradiction between believing thegospel of Jesus Christ and engaging in sacrificial rituals. Theylikely followed Jewish piety until the destruction of the temple inAD 70, when all sacrifices at the temple ceased.
Evenso, Christians quickly came to understand Christ’s death as thefinal sacrifice that completed the OT system. Various NT authorsconsider the nature of Christ’s death and metaphorically relateit to OT sacrifices, but the writer of Hebrews develops this in themost detail. According to Hebrews, the sacrificial system was merelythe shadow that pointed to Jesus. Although the blood of animals couldnot adequately deal with sins, Jesus’ sacrifice could (Heb.10:1–10). Jesus is regularly identified as the sacrificial lambwhose blood purifies humanity from sin (John 1:29, 36; Rom. 8:3;1Cor. 5:7; Eph. 5:2; 1Pet. 1:19; 1John 1:7; Rev.5:6, 12; 7:14; 12:11; 13:8). His sacrifice is considered apropitiation that turns away God’s wrath (Rom. 3:25; 1John2:2).
Theend of the OT sacrificial system does not mean that those who come toGod through Jesus Christ no longer bring sacrifices. Instead ofanimal and grain offerings, spiritual sacrifices are to be made(1Pet. 2:5). Emulating their Savior, Christ’s followersshould offer themselves as living sacrifices, devoted to God (Rom.12:1). This implies that everything done in this life could beconsidered a sacrifice. Simply believing the gospel makes one anacceptable offering to God (Rom. 15:16). Labor for the sake of thegospel, or perhaps martyrdom, can be viewed as a drink offering(Phil. 2:17). The author of Hebrews identifies three types ofsacrifices that believers should offer: praise, good deeds, andsharing with those in need (13:15–16). In line with the last ofthese points, Paul counts the gift sent by the Philippian church as afragrant offering that pleases God (Phil. 4:18).
The words “sacrifice” and “offering”often are used interchangeably, but “offering” refers toa gift more generally, while “sacrifice” indicates a giftconsecrated for a divine being. In biblical Hebrew “sacrifice”is more narrowly equated with the peace offering. All other“sacrifices” are referred to as gifts. Sacrifices wereoffered to honor God, thanking him for his goodness. More important,they enabled persons to be made right with God by atoning for theirsins. Whereas sin upset the fellowship God desired to have withpeople and kindled his wrath, sacrifice restored the relationship.
OldTestament
OTofferings included cereals (whether the grain was whole, ground intoflour, or mixed with other elements), liquids (wine, oil, or water),and animals (or parts thereof, such as the blood and fat). Althoughthe Bible acknowledges that other ancient Near Eastern people hadtheir own sacrificial rites, it rejects them as unworthy of the Godof Israel. The people of God therefore were instructed how tosacrifice properly while at Sinai. Even so, offerings and sacrificesare recorded as taking place before the law was given.
Priorto the law.Cain and Abel brought the earliest offerings. Contrary to a commoninterpretation, Cain’s offering was not rejected because it didnot include blood; the Hebrew word for the brothers’ gifts,minkhah,usually denotes grain offerings. A better conclusion is that Cainonly brought some of his produce (no mention of firstfruits), whileAbel brought the best of the best (the fat portions from thefirstborn of the flock).
Immediatelyafter the flood, Noah built an altar and presented the first burntoffering mentioned in the Bible (Gen. 8:20). That this (and othersacrifices) was received as a “pleasing aroma” indicatesthat God approved of and accepted it. It is significant thatimmediately after the offering, God made a covenant with Noah, hisdescendants, and every living creature. Sacrifices are closelyrelated to covenant relationships, as can be seen in the story ofAbraham enacting a covenant ceremony in Gen. 15 and in Israelreceiving many instructions about sacrifice while at Sinai (cf. Gen.31:43–54).
Sacrificiallaws in Leviticus.Sacrificial laws are found throughout the Pentateuch, the most beingin Lev. 1–7. As Leviticus makes clear, Israel understoodsacrifice to have a number of different purposes. It was a means tobring a gift to God, to express communion with him and others in thecommunity, to consecrate something or someone for God’s use,and to deal with personal uncleanness or sin. These ideas aredeveloped in the descriptions of the different sacrifices that Israelwas required to bring to God. In general, the sacrifices were made ofclean animals raised by the one making the offering or of grain orwine produced by the person. In some cases, the offering wasconnected with the person’s economic ability, a poorer personbeing allowed to present doves or even cereal if a lamb or goat wasunaffordable for a sin offering (Lev. 5:6–13). In all cases,only the best—what was “without defect”—wasto be offered.
Priestas mediator.Three parties were involved in the sacrifices: the worshiper, thepriest, and God. The worshiper—the person who had sinned orbecome unclean in some way—brought an animal to God, laid ahand upon it, and then killed it. Whether the animal’s deathrepresents the death that the worshiper deserves due to sin orwhether the sin is transferred to the animal that bears it instead isunclear. The priest served as a mediator who offered the blood of thesacrifice to God and, in many instances, burned all or part of theoffering. In response to the offering, God, who had graciously giventhe sacrificial system so that those who had sinned could be restoredto fellowship with him, forgave the person. Uniquely in the ancientworld, Israelite sacrifices were not considered magical acts thatcould manipulate God to act on behalf of the worshiper. Presenting animproper sacrifice while exhibiting an improper attitude or motiveresulted in rejection.
Typesof sacrifices.Leviticus introduced five main sacrifices: the ’olah (1:1–17;6:8–18), the minkhah (2:1–16; 6:14–23), theshelamim (3:1–17; 7:11–36), the khatta’t(4:1–5:13), and the ’asham (5:14–6:7). Most ofthese focused on uncleanness or sin. The worshiper who brought suchan offering was not allowed to eat any of it, as it was wholly givento God. Even when priests were allowed to eat part of a sacrifice,their portion was “waved” before God, indicating that itbelonged to him.
1.The ’olah, or burnt offering, is the basic OT sacrificeconnected with atonement for sin (Lev. 1:4). When rightly offered, itwas accepted as “an aroma pleasing to the Lord.” Theworshiper brought a male animal (young bull, sheep, goat, dove, oryoung pigeon) without blemish, laid a hand upon it, and then killedit. After the priest sprinkled some of the blood on the altar, therest was burned up.
2.The minkhah is simply a gift or offering. The Hebrew word is oftenused for a present given to another person or tribute to a ruler.When used of sacrifice, it is usually rendered as “grainoffering” or “meal offering.” A minkhah can, onoccasion, include flesh or fat (Gen. 4:4; Judg. 6:18–21).Considered “an aroma pleasing to the Lord,” it consistedof unground grain or fine flour mixed with oil and incense and waspresented either cooked or uncooked. Part of the offering was burnedas a “memorial portion,” the rest being given to thepriests (Lev. 2:1–3). It usually was accompanied by a drinkoffering—wine poured out on the altar. Grain offeringsfrequently complemented burnt offerings or fellowship offerings. Theshowbread may have been considered a grain offering.
3.The shelamim (NIV: “fellowship offering”) hastraditionally been called the “peace offering,” as theterm is related to shalom. This offering most likely indicated thatthe worshiper was at peace with God and others; all the worshiper’srelationships were whole. Classified into three types, it could beused to express thanksgiving, to signify the fulfillment of a vow, orsimply to denote one’s desire to bring an offering to God outof free will. Only those who made a vow were required to offer ashelamim; the other forms were wholly optional. The worshiper broughta male or female animal (ox, sheep, or goat) without blemish, laid ahand on its head, and slaughtered it. The priest sprinkled its bloodon the sides of the altar and burned the fat surrounding the majororgans. It is described as “an aroma pleasing to the Lord.”
Thisoffering significantly recognized the covenant relationship existingbetween those who shared in it. God received the fatty portions, theofficiating priest received the right thigh, the other priests thebreast, and the remainder was shared among members of a family, clan,tribe, or some other group. According to Leviticus, a thanksgivingoffering was to be eaten on the day it was offered, and a vow orfreewill offering could be eaten within two days. Anything not eatenin the prescribed time period was to be burned.
4.The khatta’t, or sin offering, atoned for the sin of anindividual or of the nation and cleansed the sacred items in thetabernacle that had been corrupted by sin. Since a sin offering couldpurify ceremonial as well as moral uncleanness, people who wereunclean due to childbirth, skin diseases, bodily discharges, and soforth also brought them (Lev. 12–15).
Thekind of animal sacrificed and the sacrificial ritual varied with theoffender and the offense. If a priest or the entire congregationsinned, a bull was sacrificed and its blood was sprinkled before theveil of the tabernacle and on the incense altar in the holy place.The rest was burned, leaving nothing to be eaten. Leaders who sinnedsacrificed a male goat. Its blood was sprinkled on the bronze altar,and the remainder was given to the priest. A commoner brought andslaughtered a she-goat or lamb, the priest sprinkled its blood on thehorns of the altar, and the fat was burned for God and the rest givento the priests. A poor person could bring two doves or pigeons, andthe very poor could bring a grain offering. This differentiationapparently indicated that the sins of some members of the communityhad more serious consequences than others. Those in closest contactwith the tabernacle contaminated it at a deeper level, requiring amore costly sacrifice. The poor were not required to bring more thanthey could afford.
5.The ’asham, or guilt offering, provided compensation for sins.A ram without blemish was sacrificed, its blood was sprinkled on thealtar, and its fatty portions, kidneys, and liver were burned. Therest was given to the priest. In addition, the value of what wasmisappropriated plus one-fifth of its value was given to the personwronged or to the priests.
Altars.According to Leviticus, only the Aa-ron-ic priests could handle theblood or other parts of a sacrifice brought to the altar at thetabernacle. Even so, throughout Israel’s history othersacrificial altars were built. While some of these were illicitlyused for syncretistic practices, others were constructed at God’sinstruction (Josh. 8:30–35; Judg. 6:25–26). Some of thesewere used by priests making rounds so that people from differentareas could sacrifice to God (1Sam. 7:17). Others were used byindividuals who were not priests yet desired to call upon the name ofthe Lord or sacrifice for communal meals. The solitary altars weremainly used for burnt offerings and peace offerings, although grainand drink offerings also were known. Sin and guilt offerings wereoffered only at the tabernacle or temple.
Timesand purposes.The OT regulates a number of different occasions upon which regularsacrifices were to be made. Burnt offerings were presented everymorning and evening (Exod. 29:38–41; Num. 28:1–8).Additional offerings were sacrificed on the Sabbath and the new moon(Num. 28:9–15). Special sacrifices were brought to celebratethe major festivals of the year (Num. 28:16–29:39),particularly the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16). Sacrifices might alsoaccompany requests for safety or deliverance or in response to God’sdeliverance. Thus, burnt and fellowship offerings could be broughtalong with prayers that God would put an end to a plague (2Sam.24:18–25). King David brought burnt offerings and fellowshipofferings when the ark of the covenant was returned after having beencaptured by the Philistines (2Sam. 6:1–19).
Sacrificescould also be made to consecrate people or things for a special task.When the tabernacle was consecrated, special offerings were broughtfor twelve continuous days (Num. 7). Later, fellowship, burnt, andgrain offerings were sacrificed when the temple was dedicated(1Kings 8:62–64). Sin offerings were presented when apriest was ordained (Lev. 8–9). Those who completed a vowdedicating themselves as Naz-i-rites brought sacrifices to God sothat they could again become a normal member of the congregation(Num. 6:9–21). Fellowship offerings often accompanied theannouncement of or installation of a king (1Sam. 11:14–15;1Kings 1:9,25).
Althoughthe sacrificial system was intended to bring the Israelites back intofellowship with God, at times their misuse of it separated them fromhim. When his people showed more interest in sacrificial ritual thanin obeying God’s instructions, they were chastened (1Sam.15:13–22; Jer. 7:21–28). When the people of Israel wereguilty of confusing the worship of Yahweh with Canaanite fertilitycults, God sent prophets to warn them (Isa. 1:11–16; Amos4:4–5). Prophetic statements denouncing sacrificial rites wereaimed at the misuse of sacrifices rather than their existence.Jeremiah and Ezekiel were so positive about sacrificial worship thatthey looked forward to a time when it would be reestablished in itspure form (Jer. 17:26; Ezek. 43:18–27; 46:1–24).
NewTestament
TheNT indicates that the OT sacrificial system was still in place in theearly first century AD. Following directions given in Leviticus, Marybrought a sacrifice to the temple in Jerusalem so that she could bepurified after giving birth to Jesus (Luke 2:21–24; cf. Lev.12:3, 8). Mary and Joseph would have sacrificed and eaten a Passoverlamb during their annual pilgrimage to Jerusalem to celebrate theFeast of Passover. It is not recorded whether Jesus always went withthem, but he did join them at the Passover celebration when he wastwelve years old. It is safe to assume that at this time and after hegrew up, Jesus took part in the sacrifices when he visited Jerusalemto celebrate the feasts.
Jesus’disciples attend several feasts with him. In addition, after hisresurrection they frequently went to the temple to pray at the timewhen sacrifices were made. Encouraged by the Jerusalem churchleaders, Paul went to the temple to join in and pay for thepurification rites of some men who had taken a vow, perhaps to serveas Nazirites (Acts 21:23–26). He later testified before Felixthat he had returned to Jerusalem in order to bring gifts to the poorand present offerings in the temple (24:17). Although Gentilebelievers were exempt from these practices (15:1–29), earlyJewish believers clearly saw no contradiction between believing thegospel of Jesus Christ and engaging in sacrificial rituals. Theylikely followed Jewish piety until the destruction of the temple inAD 70, when all sacrifices at the temple ceased.
Evenso, Christians quickly came to understand Christ’s death as thefinal sacrifice that completed the OT system. Various NT authorsconsider the nature of Christ’s death and metaphorically relateit to OT sacrifices, but the writer of Hebrews develops this in themost detail. According to Hebrews, the sacrificial system was merelythe shadow that pointed to Jesus. Although the blood of animals couldnot adequately deal with sins, Jesus’ sacrifice could (Heb.10:1–10). Jesus is regularly identified as the sacrificial lambwhose blood purifies humanity from sin (John 1:29, 36; Rom. 8:3;1Cor. 5:7; Eph. 5:2; 1Pet. 1:19; 1John 1:7; Rev.5:6, 12; 7:14; 12:11; 13:8). His sacrifice is considered apropitiation that turns away God’s wrath (Rom. 3:25; 1John2:2).
Theend of the OT sacrificial system does not mean that those who come toGod through Jesus Christ no longer bring sacrifices. Instead ofanimal and grain offerings, spiritual sacrifices are to be made(1Pet. 2:5). Emulating their Savior, Christ’s followersshould offer themselves as living sacrifices, devoted to God (Rom.12:1). This implies that everything done in this life could beconsidered a sacrifice. Simply believing the gospel makes one anacceptable offering to God (Rom. 15:16). Labor for the sake of thegospel, or perhaps martyrdom, can be viewed as a drink offering(Phil. 2:17). The author of Hebrews identifies three types ofsacrifices that believers should offer: praise, good deeds, andsharing with those in need (13:15–16). In line with the last ofthese points, Paul counts the gift sent by the Philippian church as afragrant offering that pleases God (Phil. 4:18).
The words “sacrifice” and “offering”often are used interchangeably, but “offering” refers toa gift more generally, while “sacrifice” indicates a giftconsecrated for a divine being. In biblical Hebrew “sacrifice”is more narrowly equated with the peace offering. All other“sacrifices” are referred to as gifts. Sacrifices wereoffered to honor God, thanking him for his goodness. More important,they enabled persons to be made right with God by atoning for theirsins. Whereas sin upset the fellowship God desired to have withpeople and kindled his wrath, sacrifice restored the relationship.
OldTestament
OTofferings included cereals (whether the grain was whole, ground intoflour, or mixed with other elements), liquids (wine, oil, or water),and animals (or parts thereof, such as the blood and fat). Althoughthe Bible acknowledges that other ancient Near Eastern people hadtheir own sacrificial rites, it rejects them as unworthy of the Godof Israel. The people of God therefore were instructed how tosacrifice properly while at Sinai. Even so, offerings and sacrificesare recorded as taking place before the law was given.
Priorto the law.Cain and Abel brought the earliest offerings. Contrary to a commoninterpretation, Cain’s offering was not rejected because it didnot include blood; the Hebrew word for the brothers’ gifts,minkhah,usually denotes grain offerings. A better conclusion is that Cainonly brought some of his produce (no mention of firstfruits), whileAbel brought the best of the best (the fat portions from thefirstborn of the flock).
Immediatelyafter the flood, Noah built an altar and presented the first burntoffering mentioned in the Bible (Gen. 8:20). That this (and othersacrifices) was received as a “pleasing aroma” indicatesthat God approved of and accepted it. It is significant thatimmediately after the offering, God made a covenant with Noah, hisdescendants, and every living creature. Sacrifices are closelyrelated to covenant relationships, as can be seen in the story ofAbraham enacting a covenant ceremony in Gen. 15 and in Israelreceiving many instructions about sacrifice while at Sinai (cf. Gen.31:43–54).
Sacrificiallaws in Leviticus.Sacrificial laws are found throughout the Pentateuch, the most beingin Lev. 1–7. As Leviticus makes clear, Israel understoodsacrifice to have a number of different purposes. It was a means tobring a gift to God, to express communion with him and others in thecommunity, to consecrate something or someone for God’s use,and to deal with personal uncleanness or sin. These ideas aredeveloped in the descriptions of the different sacrifices that Israelwas required to bring to God. In general, the sacrifices were made ofclean animals raised by the one making the offering or of grain orwine produced by the person. In some cases, the offering wasconnected with the person’s economic ability, a poorer personbeing allowed to present doves or even cereal if a lamb or goat wasunaffordable for a sin offering (Lev. 5:6–13). In all cases,only the best—what was “without defect”—wasto be offered.
Priestas mediator.Three parties were involved in the sacrifices: the worshiper, thepriest, and God. The worshiper—the person who had sinned orbecome unclean in some way—brought an animal to God, laid ahand upon it, and then killed it. Whether the animal’s deathrepresents the death that the worshiper deserves due to sin orwhether the sin is transferred to the animal that bears it instead isunclear. The priest served as a mediator who offered the blood of thesacrifice to God and, in many instances, burned all or part of theoffering. In response to the offering, God, who had graciously giventhe sacrificial system so that those who had sinned could be restoredto fellowship with him, forgave the person. Uniquely in the ancientworld, Israelite sacrifices were not considered magical acts thatcould manipulate God to act on behalf of the worshiper. Presenting animproper sacrifice while exhibiting an improper attitude or motiveresulted in rejection.
Typesof sacrifices.Leviticus introduced five main sacrifices: the ’olah (1:1–17;6:8–18), the minkhah (2:1–16; 6:14–23), theshelamim (3:1–17; 7:11–36), the khatta’t(4:1–5:13), and the ’asham (5:14–6:7). Most ofthese focused on uncleanness or sin. The worshiper who brought suchan offering was not allowed to eat any of it, as it was wholly givento God. Even when priests were allowed to eat part of a sacrifice,their portion was “waved” before God, indicating that itbelonged to him.
1.The ’olah, or burnt offering, is the basic OT sacrificeconnected with atonement for sin (Lev. 1:4). When rightly offered, itwas accepted as “an aroma pleasing to the Lord.” Theworshiper brought a male animal (young bull, sheep, goat, dove, oryoung pigeon) without blemish, laid a hand upon it, and then killedit. After the priest sprinkled some of the blood on the altar, therest was burned up.
2.The minkhah is simply a gift or offering. The Hebrew word is oftenused for a present given to another person or tribute to a ruler.When used of sacrifice, it is usually rendered as “grainoffering” or “meal offering.” A minkhah can, onoccasion, include flesh or fat (Gen. 4:4; Judg. 6:18–21).Considered “an aroma pleasing to the Lord,” it consistedof unground grain or fine flour mixed with oil and incense and waspresented either cooked or uncooked. Part of the offering was burnedas a “memorial portion,” the rest being given to thepriests (Lev. 2:1–3). It usually was accompanied by a drinkoffering—wine poured out on the altar. Grain offeringsfrequently complemented burnt offerings or fellowship offerings. Theshowbread may have been considered a grain offering.
3.The shelamim (NIV: “fellowship offering”) hastraditionally been called the “peace offering,” as theterm is related to shalom. This offering most likely indicated thatthe worshiper was at peace with God and others; all the worshiper’srelationships were whole. Classified into three types, it could beused to express thanksgiving, to signify the fulfillment of a vow, orsimply to denote one’s desire to bring an offering to God outof free will. Only those who made a vow were required to offer ashelamim; the other forms were wholly optional. The worshiper broughta male or female animal (ox, sheep, or goat) without blemish, laid ahand on its head, and slaughtered it. The priest sprinkled its bloodon the sides of the altar and burned the fat surrounding the majororgans. It is described as “an aroma pleasing to the Lord.”
Thisoffering significantly recognized the covenant relationship existingbetween those who shared in it. God received the fatty portions, theofficiating priest received the right thigh, the other priests thebreast, and the remainder was shared among members of a family, clan,tribe, or some other group. According to Leviticus, a thanksgivingoffering was to be eaten on the day it was offered, and a vow orfreewill offering could be eaten within two days. Anything not eatenin the prescribed time period was to be burned.
4.The khatta’t, or sin offering, atoned for the sin of anindividual or of the nation and cleansed the sacred items in thetabernacle that had been corrupted by sin. Since a sin offering couldpurify ceremonial as well as moral uncleanness, people who wereunclean due to childbirth, skin diseases, bodily discharges, and soforth also brought them (Lev. 12–15).
Thekind of animal sacrificed and the sacrificial ritual varied with theoffender and the offense. If a priest or the entire congregationsinned, a bull was sacrificed and its blood was sprinkled before theveil of the tabernacle and on the incense altar in the holy place.The rest was burned, leaving nothing to be eaten. Leaders who sinnedsacrificed a male goat. Its blood was sprinkled on the bronze altar,and the remainder was given to the priest. A commoner brought andslaughtered a she-goat or lamb, the priest sprinkled its blood on thehorns of the altar, and the fat was burned for God and the rest givento the priests. A poor person could bring two doves or pigeons, andthe very poor could bring a grain offering. This differentiationapparently indicated that the sins of some members of the communityhad more serious consequences than others. Those in closest contactwith the tabernacle contaminated it at a deeper level, requiring amore costly sacrifice. The poor were not required to bring more thanthey could afford.
5.The ’asham, or guilt offering, provided compensation for sins.A ram without blemish was sacrificed, its blood was sprinkled on thealtar, and its fatty portions, kidneys, and liver were burned. Therest was given to the priest. In addition, the value of what wasmisappropriated plus one-fifth of its value was given to the personwronged or to the priests.
Altars.According to Leviticus, only the Aa-ron-ic priests could handle theblood or other parts of a sacrifice brought to the altar at thetabernacle. Even so, throughout Israel’s history othersacrificial altars were built. While some of these were illicitlyused for syncretistic practices, others were constructed at God’sinstruction (Josh. 8:30–35; Judg. 6:25–26). Some of thesewere used by priests making rounds so that people from differentareas could sacrifice to God (1Sam. 7:17). Others were used byindividuals who were not priests yet desired to call upon the name ofthe Lord or sacrifice for communal meals. The solitary altars weremainly used for burnt offerings and peace offerings, although grainand drink offerings also were known. Sin and guilt offerings wereoffered only at the tabernacle or temple.
Timesand purposes.The OT regulates a number of different occasions upon which regularsacrifices were to be made. Burnt offerings were presented everymorning and evening (Exod. 29:38–41; Num. 28:1–8).Additional offerings were sacrificed on the Sabbath and the new moon(Num. 28:9–15). Special sacrifices were brought to celebratethe major festivals of the year (Num. 28:16–29:39),particularly the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16). Sacrifices might alsoaccompany requests for safety or deliverance or in response to God’sdeliverance. Thus, burnt and fellowship offerings could be broughtalong with prayers that God would put an end to a plague (2Sam.24:18–25). King David brought burnt offerings and fellowshipofferings when the ark of the covenant was returned after having beencaptured by the Philistines (2Sam. 6:1–19).
Sacrificescould also be made to consecrate people or things for a special task.When the tabernacle was consecrated, special offerings were broughtfor twelve continuous days (Num. 7). Later, fellowship, burnt, andgrain offerings were sacrificed when the temple was dedicated(1Kings 8:62–64). Sin offerings were presented when apriest was ordained (Lev. 8–9). Those who completed a vowdedicating themselves as Naz-i-rites brought sacrifices to God sothat they could again become a normal member of the congregation(Num. 6:9–21). Fellowship offerings often accompanied theannouncement of or installation of a king (1Sam. 11:14–15;1Kings 1:9,25).
Althoughthe sacrificial system was intended to bring the Israelites back intofellowship with God, at times their misuse of it separated them fromhim. When his people showed more interest in sacrificial ritual thanin obeying God’s instructions, they were chastened (1Sam.15:13–22; Jer. 7:21–28). When the people of Israel wereguilty of confusing the worship of Yahweh with Canaanite fertilitycults, God sent prophets to warn them (Isa. 1:11–16; Amos4:4–5). Prophetic statements denouncing sacrificial rites wereaimed at the misuse of sacrifices rather than their existence.Jeremiah and Ezekiel were so positive about sacrificial worship thatthey looked forward to a time when it would be reestablished in itspure form (Jer. 17:26; Ezek. 43:18–27; 46:1–24).
NewTestament
TheNT indicates that the OT sacrificial system was still in place in theearly first century AD. Following directions given in Leviticus, Marybrought a sacrifice to the temple in Jerusalem so that she could bepurified after giving birth to Jesus (Luke 2:21–24; cf. Lev.12:3, 8). Mary and Joseph would have sacrificed and eaten a Passoverlamb during their annual pilgrimage to Jerusalem to celebrate theFeast of Passover. It is not recorded whether Jesus always went withthem, but he did join them at the Passover celebration when he wastwelve years old. It is safe to assume that at this time and after hegrew up, Jesus took part in the sacrifices when he visited Jerusalemto celebrate the feasts.
Jesus’disciples attend several feasts with him. In addition, after hisresurrection they frequently went to the temple to pray at the timewhen sacrifices were made. Encouraged by the Jerusalem churchleaders, Paul went to the temple to join in and pay for thepurification rites of some men who had taken a vow, perhaps to serveas Nazirites (Acts 21:23–26). He later testified before Felixthat he had returned to Jerusalem in order to bring gifts to the poorand present offerings in the temple (24:17). Although Gentilebelievers were exempt from these practices (15:1–29), earlyJewish believers clearly saw no contradiction between believing thegospel of Jesus Christ and engaging in sacrificial rituals. Theylikely followed Jewish piety until the destruction of the temple inAD 70, when all sacrifices at the temple ceased.
Evenso, Christians quickly came to understand Christ’s death as thefinal sacrifice that completed the OT system. Various NT authorsconsider the nature of Christ’s death and metaphorically relateit to OT sacrifices, but the writer of Hebrews develops this in themost detail. According to Hebrews, the sacrificial system was merelythe shadow that pointed to Jesus. Although the blood of animals couldnot adequately deal with sins, Jesus’ sacrifice could (Heb.10:1–10). Jesus is regularly identified as the sacrificial lambwhose blood purifies humanity from sin (John 1:29, 36; Rom. 8:3;1Cor. 5:7; Eph. 5:2; 1Pet. 1:19; 1John 1:7; Rev.5:6, 12; 7:14; 12:11; 13:8). His sacrifice is considered apropitiation that turns away God’s wrath (Rom. 3:25; 1John2:2).
Theend of the OT sacrificial system does not mean that those who come toGod through Jesus Christ no longer bring sacrifices. Instead ofanimal and grain offerings, spiritual sacrifices are to be made(1Pet. 2:5). Emulating their Savior, Christ’s followersshould offer themselves as living sacrifices, devoted to God (Rom.12:1). This implies that everything done in this life could beconsidered a sacrifice. Simply believing the gospel makes one anacceptable offering to God (Rom. 15:16). Labor for the sake of thegospel, or perhaps martyrdom, can be viewed as a drink offering(Phil. 2:17). The author of Hebrews identifies three types ofsacrifices that believers should offer: praise, good deeds, andsharing with those in need (13:15–16). In line with the last ofthese points, Paul counts the gift sent by the Philippian church as afragrant offering that pleases God (Phil. 4:18).
The words “sacrifice” and “offering”often are used interchangeably, but “offering” refers toa gift more generally, while “sacrifice” indicates a giftconsecrated for a divine being. In biblical Hebrew “sacrifice”is more narrowly equated with the peace offering. All other“sacrifices” are referred to as gifts. Sacrifices wereoffered to honor God, thanking him for his goodness. More important,they enabled persons to be made right with God by atoning for theirsins. Whereas sin upset the fellowship God desired to have withpeople and kindled his wrath, sacrifice restored the relationship.
OldTestament
OTofferings included cereals (whether the grain was whole, ground intoflour, or mixed with other elements), liquids (wine, oil, or water),and animals (or parts thereof, such as the blood and fat). Althoughthe Bible acknowledges that other ancient Near Eastern people hadtheir own sacrificial rites, it rejects them as unworthy of the Godof Israel. The people of God therefore were instructed how tosacrifice properly while at Sinai. Even so, offerings and sacrificesare recorded as taking place before the law was given.
Priorto the law.Cain and Abel brought the earliest offerings. Contrary to a commoninterpretation, Cain’s offering was not rejected because it didnot include blood; the Hebrew word for the brothers’ gifts,minkhah,usually denotes grain offerings. A better conclusion is that Cainonly brought some of his produce (no mention of firstfruits), whileAbel brought the best of the best (the fat portions from thefirstborn of the flock).
Immediatelyafter the flood, Noah built an altar and presented the first burntoffering mentioned in the Bible (Gen. 8:20). That this (and othersacrifices) was received as a “pleasing aroma” indicatesthat God approved of and accepted it. It is significant thatimmediately after the offering, God made a covenant with Noah, hisdescendants, and every living creature. Sacrifices are closelyrelated to covenant relationships, as can be seen in the story ofAbraham enacting a covenant ceremony in Gen. 15 and in Israelreceiving many instructions about sacrifice while at Sinai (cf. Gen.31:43–54).
Sacrificiallaws in Leviticus.Sacrificial laws are found throughout the Pentateuch, the most beingin Lev. 1–7. As Leviticus makes clear, Israel understoodsacrifice to have a number of different purposes. It was a means tobring a gift to God, to express communion with him and others in thecommunity, to consecrate something or someone for God’s use,and to deal with personal uncleanness or sin. These ideas aredeveloped in the descriptions of the different sacrifices that Israelwas required to bring to God. In general, the sacrifices were made ofclean animals raised by the one making the offering or of grain orwine produced by the person. In some cases, the offering wasconnected with the person’s economic ability, a poorer personbeing allowed to present doves or even cereal if a lamb or goat wasunaffordable for a sin offering (Lev. 5:6–13). In all cases,only the best—what was “without defect”—wasto be offered.
Priestas mediator.Three parties were involved in the sacrifices: the worshiper, thepriest, and God. The worshiper—the person who had sinned orbecome unclean in some way—brought an animal to God, laid ahand upon it, and then killed it. Whether the animal’s deathrepresents the death that the worshiper deserves due to sin orwhether the sin is transferred to the animal that bears it instead isunclear. The priest served as a mediator who offered the blood of thesacrifice to God and, in many instances, burned all or part of theoffering. In response to the offering, God, who had graciously giventhe sacrificial system so that those who had sinned could be restoredto fellowship with him, forgave the person. Uniquely in the ancientworld, Israelite sacrifices were not considered magical acts thatcould manipulate God to act on behalf of the worshiper. Presenting animproper sacrifice while exhibiting an improper attitude or motiveresulted in rejection.
Typesof sacrifices.Leviticus introduced five main sacrifices: the ’olah (1:1–17;6:8–18), the minkhah (2:1–16; 6:14–23), theshelamim (3:1–17; 7:11–36), the khatta’t(4:1–5:13), and the ’asham (5:14–6:7). Most ofthese focused on uncleanness or sin. The worshiper who brought suchan offering was not allowed to eat any of it, as it was wholly givento God. Even when priests were allowed to eat part of a sacrifice,their portion was “waved” before God, indicating that itbelonged to him.
1.The ’olah, or burnt offering, is the basic OT sacrificeconnected with atonement for sin (Lev. 1:4). When rightly offered, itwas accepted as “an aroma pleasing to the Lord.” Theworshiper brought a male animal (young bull, sheep, goat, dove, oryoung pigeon) without blemish, laid a hand upon it, and then killedit. After the priest sprinkled some of the blood on the altar, therest was burned up.
2.The minkhah is simply a gift or offering. The Hebrew word is oftenused for a present given to another person or tribute to a ruler.When used of sacrifice, it is usually rendered as “grainoffering” or “meal offering.” A minkhah can, onoccasion, include flesh or fat (Gen. 4:4; Judg. 6:18–21).Considered “an aroma pleasing to the Lord,” it consistedof unground grain or fine flour mixed with oil and incense and waspresented either cooked or uncooked. Part of the offering was burnedas a “memorial portion,” the rest being given to thepriests (Lev. 2:1–3). It usually was accompanied by a drinkoffering—wine poured out on the altar. Grain offeringsfrequently complemented burnt offerings or fellowship offerings. Theshowbread may have been considered a grain offering.
3.The shelamim (NIV: “fellowship offering”) hastraditionally been called the “peace offering,” as theterm is related to shalom. This offering most likely indicated thatthe worshiper was at peace with God and others; all the worshiper’srelationships were whole. Classified into three types, it could beused to express thanksgiving, to signify the fulfillment of a vow, orsimply to denote one’s desire to bring an offering to God outof free will. Only those who made a vow were required to offer ashelamim; the other forms were wholly optional. The worshiper broughta male or female animal (ox, sheep, or goat) without blemish, laid ahand on its head, and slaughtered it. The priest sprinkled its bloodon the sides of the altar and burned the fat surrounding the majororgans. It is described as “an aroma pleasing to the Lord.”
Thisoffering significantly recognized the covenant relationship existingbetween those who shared in it. God received the fatty portions, theofficiating priest received the right thigh, the other priests thebreast, and the remainder was shared among members of a family, clan,tribe, or some other group. According to Leviticus, a thanksgivingoffering was to be eaten on the day it was offered, and a vow orfreewill offering could be eaten within two days. Anything not eatenin the prescribed time period was to be burned.
4.The khatta’t, or sin offering, atoned for the sin of anindividual or of the nation and cleansed the sacred items in thetabernacle that had been corrupted by sin. Since a sin offering couldpurify ceremonial as well as moral uncleanness, people who wereunclean due to childbirth, skin diseases, bodily discharges, and soforth also brought them (Lev. 12–15).
Thekind of animal sacrificed and the sacrificial ritual varied with theoffender and the offense. If a priest or the entire congregationsinned, a bull was sacrificed and its blood was sprinkled before theveil of the tabernacle and on the incense altar in the holy place.The rest was burned, leaving nothing to be eaten. Leaders who sinnedsacrificed a male goat. Its blood was sprinkled on the bronze altar,and the remainder was given to the priest. A commoner brought andslaughtered a she-goat or lamb, the priest sprinkled its blood on thehorns of the altar, and the fat was burned for God and the rest givento the priests. A poor person could bring two doves or pigeons, andthe very poor could bring a grain offering. This differentiationapparently indicated that the sins of some members of the communityhad more serious consequences than others. Those in closest contactwith the tabernacle contaminated it at a deeper level, requiring amore costly sacrifice. The poor were not required to bring more thanthey could afford.
5.The ’asham, or guilt offering, provided compensation for sins.A ram without blemish was sacrificed, its blood was sprinkled on thealtar, and its fatty portions, kidneys, and liver were burned. Therest was given to the priest. In addition, the value of what wasmisappropriated plus one-fifth of its value was given to the personwronged or to the priests.
Altars.According to Leviticus, only the Aa-ron-ic priests could handle theblood or other parts of a sacrifice brought to the altar at thetabernacle. Even so, throughout Israel’s history othersacrificial altars were built. While some of these were illicitlyused for syncretistic practices, others were constructed at God’sinstruction (Josh. 8:30–35; Judg. 6:25–26). Some of thesewere used by priests making rounds so that people from differentareas could sacrifice to God (1Sam. 7:17). Others were used byindividuals who were not priests yet desired to call upon the name ofthe Lord or sacrifice for communal meals. The solitary altars weremainly used for burnt offerings and peace offerings, although grainand drink offerings also were known. Sin and guilt offerings wereoffered only at the tabernacle or temple.
Timesand purposes.The OT regulates a number of different occasions upon which regularsacrifices were to be made. Burnt offerings were presented everymorning and evening (Exod. 29:38–41; Num. 28:1–8).Additional offerings were sacrificed on the Sabbath and the new moon(Num. 28:9–15). Special sacrifices were brought to celebratethe major festivals of the year (Num. 28:16–29:39),particularly the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16). Sacrifices might alsoaccompany requests for safety or deliverance or in response to God’sdeliverance. Thus, burnt and fellowship offerings could be broughtalong with prayers that God would put an end to a plague (2Sam.24:18–25). King David brought burnt offerings and fellowshipofferings when the ark of the covenant was returned after having beencaptured by the Philistines (2Sam. 6:1–19).
Sacrificescould also be made to consecrate people or things for a special task.When the tabernacle was consecrated, special offerings were broughtfor twelve continuous days (Num. 7). Later, fellowship, burnt, andgrain offerings were sacrificed when the temple was dedicated(1Kings 8:62–64). Sin offerings were presented when apriest was ordained (Lev. 8–9). Those who completed a vowdedicating themselves as Naz-i-rites brought sacrifices to God sothat they could again become a normal member of the congregation(Num. 6:9–21). Fellowship offerings often accompanied theannouncement of or installation of a king (1Sam. 11:14–15;1Kings 1:9,25).
Althoughthe sacrificial system was intended to bring the Israelites back intofellowship with God, at times their misuse of it separated them fromhim. When his people showed more interest in sacrificial ritual thanin obeying God’s instructions, they were chastened (1Sam.15:13–22; Jer. 7:21–28). When the people of Israel wereguilty of confusing the worship of Yahweh with Canaanite fertilitycults, God sent prophets to warn them (Isa. 1:11–16; Amos4:4–5). Prophetic statements denouncing sacrificial rites wereaimed at the misuse of sacrifices rather than their existence.Jeremiah and Ezekiel were so positive about sacrificial worship thatthey looked forward to a time when it would be reestablished in itspure form (Jer. 17:26; Ezek. 43:18–27; 46:1–24).
NewTestament
TheNT indicates that the OT sacrificial system was still in place in theearly first century AD. Following directions given in Leviticus, Marybrought a sacrifice to the temple in Jerusalem so that she could bepurified after giving birth to Jesus (Luke 2:21–24; cf. Lev.12:3, 8). Mary and Joseph would have sacrificed and eaten a Passoverlamb during their annual pilgrimage to Jerusalem to celebrate theFeast of Passover. It is not recorded whether Jesus always went withthem, but he did join them at the Passover celebration when he wastwelve years old. It is safe to assume that at this time and after hegrew up, Jesus took part in the sacrifices when he visited Jerusalemto celebrate the feasts.
Jesus’disciples attend several feasts with him. In addition, after hisresurrection they frequently went to the temple to pray at the timewhen sacrifices were made. Encouraged by the Jerusalem churchleaders, Paul went to the temple to join in and pay for thepurification rites of some men who had taken a vow, perhaps to serveas Nazirites (Acts 21:23–26). He later testified before Felixthat he had returned to Jerusalem in order to bring gifts to the poorand present offerings in the temple (24:17). Although Gentilebelievers were exempt from these practices (15:1–29), earlyJewish believers clearly saw no contradiction between believing thegospel of Jesus Christ and engaging in sacrificial rituals. Theylikely followed Jewish piety until the destruction of the temple inAD 70, when all sacrifices at the temple ceased.
Evenso, Christians quickly came to understand Christ’s death as thefinal sacrifice that completed the OT system. Various NT authorsconsider the nature of Christ’s death and metaphorically relateit to OT sacrifices, but the writer of Hebrews develops this in themost detail. According to Hebrews, the sacrificial system was merelythe shadow that pointed to Jesus. Although the blood of animals couldnot adequately deal with sins, Jesus’ sacrifice could (Heb.10:1–10). Jesus is regularly identified as the sacrificial lambwhose blood purifies humanity from sin (John 1:29, 36; Rom. 8:3;1Cor. 5:7; Eph. 5:2; 1Pet. 1:19; 1John 1:7; Rev.5:6, 12; 7:14; 12:11; 13:8). His sacrifice is considered apropitiation that turns away God’s wrath (Rom. 3:25; 1John2:2).
Theend of the OT sacrificial system does not mean that those who come toGod through Jesus Christ no longer bring sacrifices. Instead ofanimal and grain offerings, spiritual sacrifices are to be made(1Pet. 2:5). Emulating their Savior, Christ’s followersshould offer themselves as living sacrifices, devoted to God (Rom.12:1). This implies that everything done in this life could beconsidered a sacrifice. Simply believing the gospel makes one anacceptable offering to God (Rom. 15:16). Labor for the sake of thegospel, or perhaps martyrdom, can be viewed as a drink offering(Phil. 2:17). The author of Hebrews identifies three types ofsacrifices that believers should offer: praise, good deeds, andsharing with those in need (13:15–16). In line with the last ofthese points, Paul counts the gift sent by the Philippian church as afragrant offering that pleases God (Phil. 4:18).
Sonsof Jacob
Genesis29–30, 35 records the birth of the sons of Jacob, whichprovides a covenantal and family basis for the later confederation ofa dozen independent tribes of Semitic peoples. They shared a commonhistory, culture, religion, and set of traditions that served for atime to bind them together as a single nation. According to thefamily records, the tribes were named after their forebears, who wereborn in the following manner. Jacob’s first (and unloved) wife,Leah, bore Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah, in that order. Then hisbeloved Rachel gave him her maid Bilhah, who bore Dan and Naphtali.Leah’s maid then bore Gad and Asher. Then Leah bore Issacharand Zebulun. Finally, Rachel bore Joseph and Benjamin. At root, thelater history of the tribes is a family history, traceable toAbraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Thus, the story of the tribes begins inthe early second millennium BC.
Genesiswas written at a period considerably after the time of thepatriarchs, and thus written with the awareness that thecharacterizations of the patriarchs reflected in some way thetemperament of the individual tribes. The first story told about theactions of Jacob’s sons is how Simeon and Levi took terriblevengeance on the city of Shechem for the rape of their sister Dinah.This brought about Jacob’s rebuke. Jacob feared that thisaction would bring further retaliation upon his family (Gen. 34). Thehistory of the patriarchs comes to its high point in the story ofJoseph, an account that spans Gen. 37–50. Joseph was thebrother revealed in dreams to be elected by God to rule. Hisbrothers’ jealousy led them to seek to rid themselves of him.Reuben, the firstborn, is characterized as being the responsible one,wanting to do him no harm. But in Reuben’s absence, Judah ledthe others in selling Joseph into slavery. God was with Joseph,however, and through a series of events God made Joseph the leader ofEgypt, fulfilling the prophetic dreams.
Genesisconnects this family story with later tribal history. As propheticdreams revealed Joseph’s destiny to rule over Egypt, Jacob’sblessing in Gen. 49 reveals the destiny of the later tribes. Reubenlost his double-portion inheritance of the firstborn due to hisdishonoring his father (Gen. 35:22). This honor is tacitly conferredon Joseph in Gen. 48. Jacob said that Levi would be dispersed amongIsrael. As the priestly tribe, Levi inherited no land. Judah waspredicted to be the tribe of kings.
Wildernessand Conquest
Inthe wilderness wanderings of Israel, the campsite was organized bytribe (Num. 2). At its center was the tabernacle. The tribe of Leviformed an inner circle that surrounded it. At the entrance to thetabernacle (facing east) were the priests, the sons of Aaron. Theother divisions of Levi were the Merarites, the Gershonites, and theKohathites. These together formed the inner circle that guarded theholy place. Levi was the holiest tribe of Israel, the only tribeallowed to maintain and service God’s dwelling place. The outerperimeter of the encampment was formed by twelve tribes (the tribe ofJoseph counted as two). The eastern front was dominated by Judah andincluded Issachar and Zebulun. Dan, Asher, and Naphtali were to thenorth; Reuben, Simeon,and Gad to the south; and to the westwere Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh) and Benjamin.
Whenthe people were on the move, the priests went in the front carryingthe ark of the covenant, following the pillar of cloud. When it cameto rest over a place, there the priests would set down the ark.Behind them followed Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun. After them camethe Gershonites and the Merarites, carrying the bundled tabernacle,which they set up around the ark when the people made camp. Reuben,Simeon, and Gad took their places. Then came the Kohathites, whocarried the furnishings and vessels for the tabernacle. Next followedJoseph (Ephraim and Manasseh) and Benjamin. Finally, as a rearguard,came Dan, accompanied by Asher and Naphtali (Num. 10:11–33).
Oncetheir sojourn in the wilderness was over, the Israelites began toconquer the land of Canaan. Joshua allotted portions of land to eachtribe (Josh. 13–21). The descendants of Joseph constituted twotribes, Manasseh and Ephraim. Each of those two received aninheritance; thus, Joseph can be said to have received a doubleportion as though firstborn. The Jordan River formed a natural borderdown the middle of the land. To its east were parts of Manasseh, Gad,and Reuben. The other tribes were to the west. The southernmost tribewas Judah. Within Judah was Simeon, which over time was absorbed intoJudah. Levi had no land for an inheritance, since Yahweh was Levi’sinheritance—fulfilling Jacob’s prophecy of Levi andSimeon being scattered throughout Israel. Immediately north of Judahwere Dan and Benjamin. The remaining tribes were more northern still.So that they would not forget Yahweh, the tribes across the Jordanbuilt an alternative altar, not for sacrifice but rather as areminder of the true and living God (Josh. 22).
Judges
Thehistory of the conquest underscores the fact that the tribes failedto drive out the inhabitants of the land completely. Many citiesremained centers for non-Israelite culture and religion. “WhenJoshua had grown old, the Lord said to him, ‘You are now veryold, and there are still very large areas of land to be taken over’”(Josh. 13:1). Judges 1 lists many peoples that continued to livealongside the Israelites.
Someof these peoples became incorporated into the mix of tribes. Rahaband her family from Jericho became integrated into the tribe of Judah(Josh. 2–6). The Gibeonites were a Canaanite people group whowere incorporated into Israel (Josh. 9). Ruth the Moabite marriedinto Judah (Ruth 4). Uriah the Hittite is an example of a Canaanitewho was fully naturalized, to the extent that he kept himselfceremonially pure and fought in God’s holy wars for Israel(2Sam. 11:11).
Thebook of Judges records the relative success or failure of each tribeto subdue and settle its own territory, and Judah consistently standsout as superior in this respect. Judges 1:2 puts Judah first. Judahprovided leadership and support to Simeon, helping it to fulfill itsown calling (1:17). After describing Judah’s success, Judg. 1delineates the other tribes’ failures.
Twostories at the end of Judges illustrate the character of Judah inthis period. Whenever Bethlehem and the other cities of Judah are thesetting, sojourners and others are treated hospitably, have no fears,and prosper. This is true also of the book of Ruth. But when folktravel elsewhere—to Moab or north to Ephraim or Benjamin—theymeet only trouble. Ephraim provided no protection to Micah when thelawless Danites overran his house (Judg. 18). Moab brought onlyfamine, barrenness, and death (Ruth 1).
Butthe worst case of all is the Benjamite city of Gibeah (Judg. 19–20).There, the sin of Sodom was repeated as men surrounded the host’shouse and demanded the sojourner. All Israel took up arms to destroythe wicked city and to punish the wicked tribe. As in the first twoverses of Judges, God appointed Judah to the leadership position(Judg. 20:18). Judah then did to Benjamin what God had done to Sodom,almost wiping out the tribe.
UnitedKingdom
Nevertheless,when the tribes came together and demanded a king, the first kingwhom God gave them, Saul, was from the tribe of Benjamin (1Sam.9:17). Benjamin was situated midway between Judah of the south andthe northern tribes. Saul was successful in leading the army ofIsrael, and for a time he enjoyed God’s blessing. But in theend, God rejected him and sent Samuel the prophet to anoint aBethlehemite, David, to become the next king. However, upon Saul’sdeath, his son Ish-Bosheth (Ishbaal) claimed the throne (2Sam.2:8–9), around 1011 BC.
Therefollowed a bitter civil war between the house of Saul, backed by thenorthern tribes, and the house of David, backed by Judah. After sevenyears, David had grown stronger and Ish-Bosheth weaker, until atHebron David was finally acknowledged as king of all Israel (2Sam.5:3). David’s throne would last for centuries, until thedestruction of Jerusalem. In the NT, David’s greater son Jesusinherited the throne. Thus, Jacob’s prophecy that the tribe ofJudah would hold the scepter was fulfilled.
Thenorthern tribes did not forget that they had once fought againstDavid. David was caught in a scandal when his troops were in battle,and this may have further lessened their loyalty to him (2Sam.12). When his son Absalom rebelled and proclaimed himself king, thenorthern tribes once more allied themselves against David, andanother civil war ensued. Although David won back his throne, thedissatisfaction of the northern tribes with the house of Davidcontinued (2Sam. 15–19).
AfterDavid died, Solomon inherited his throne (971 BC). Throughout hisreign, Solomon placed burdens on the tribes. He divided his kingdominto administrative districts that did not exactly correspond to thetribal territories. Dan and Zebulun were folded into otherterritories, and Asher seemed to have been ceded to Phoenicia(1Kings 4). Thus, Solomon’s kingdom systematicallyweakened tribal identities. He laid a levy upon the tribes of Israelof thousands of men to provide a labor force for his buildingprojects (1Kings 5). Solomon built and consecrated the temple,and Jerusalem thus became both the political and religious center ofthe nation. The price for this, however, was the exacerbateddiscontent of the northern tribes.
UponSolomon’s death, the tribes confronted his son Rehoboam with ademand to lighten Solomon’s “harsh labor and ...heavy yoke” (1Kings 12:4). Rehoboam foolishly replied,“My father made your yoke heavy; I will make it even heavier.My father scourged you with whips; I will scourge you with scorpions”(1Kings 12:14). The northern tribes finally abandoned David’shouse and thus became an independent political and religious state(931BC).
DividedKingdom
Throughoutthe period of the divided kingdom, tribal identities became lessimportant, for their loyalties were now dominated by the reigningking of either nation. The border between the northern and thesouthern kingdoms was more or less a straight line, from Joppa on thewest near the Mediterranean, to the upper tip of the Dead Sea. Thiscut through Dan, Ephraim, and Benjamin, leaving Simeon surrounded byJudah. Jerusalem was just south of the border. The first king of thenorth, Jeroboam, placed golden calves just north of the border, inBethel, and also at the northern end of his kingdom, in the city ofDan. These served as cultic alternatives to the temple in Jerusalemfor the duration of the northern kingdom. He also modified the law ofMoses to allow for non-Levitical priests and a different liturgicalcalendar. The northern kingdom was called “Israel” (itscapital was Samaria), and the southern kingdom was called “Judah”(1Kings 12:25–33).
Forhalf a century war ensued between the two kingdoms. The two formed analliance during the reigns of Ahab and his sons. King Ahab of Israelgave his daughter Athaliah to be married to King Jehoshaphat’sson Jehoram. Together the kingdoms fought against common enemies,such as Syria and Moab. They successfully turned back the superpowerof the day, Assyria.
UnderKing Ahab and his wife Jezebel, Baal worship was aggressivelypromoted at the expense of traditional Yahwism. During this periodElijah and Elisha called the people back to the God of theirancestors, but with little success (1Kings 17–2Kings13). A small group of faithful worshipers called the “sons ofthe prophets” did remain true to Yahweh, but most of Israelabandoned him. Hosea and Amos later also warned Israel, but theircalls went unheeded. Ahab and Jezebel’s daughter Athaliahmarried Jehoram, and both of them promoted Baal worship in Judah justas in Israel. Thus, the people of Yahweh had become the people ofBaal. Jezebel’s son Joram ruled Israel upon Ahab’s death,and Athaliah’s son Ahaziah ruled Judah upon Jehoram’sdeath.
Elishasecretly anointed one of Joram’s generals, Jehu, to bring theOmride dynasty to an end in Israel and to become the next king(2Kings 9). Jehu killed both kings and Jezebel, and hedestroyed all remnants of Ahab’s family. He also slaughteredthe worshipers of Baal: “so Jehu destroyed Baal worship inIsrael” (10:28). Upon the death of her son the king, Athaliahseized the throne and did to David’s house what Jehu had doneto Ahab’s: she had every family member killed.
Butone infant survived: Joash. He was secretly raised in the temple ofYahweh until he was seven years old. Then his supporters proclaimedhim king. Athaliah cried out, “Treason! Treason!”(2Kings 11:14), and the priest Jehoiada had her put to death.The place and objects of Baal worship were destroyed, endingstate-sponsored Baalism in Judah (11:17–18).
Fallof Both Kingdoms
Afterboth kingdoms’ period of infatuation with Baal (under thedomination of the Omrides), their history as nations continued totheir final fall. In Israel, the people never gave up Jeroboam’sperversion of the law of Moses. In Judah, kings varied widely intheir regard for the law of Moses; sometimes they were faithful,sometimes very unfaithful. Meanwhile, Assyria was a constant threat.During the reign of the good king Hezekiah, Judah was overrun by theforces of the Assyrian king Sennacherib. God miraculously deliveredJerusalem (2Kings 18). However, there was no such deliverancefor Israel. Samaria was besieged for three years and finally taken(722 BC). Most of the population was deported (17:5–18). Otherpeople groups were transplanted there who learned the law of Mosesand feared Yahweh along with their own gods (17:24–41).
Atthis point in their history, only Judah remained as a politicalentity; the northern tribes of Israel were lost. After the faithfulking Hezekiah, Judah’s next significant king was Manasseh. Heis described in 2Kings as the king most offensive to God. Tocategorize him, it was not enough to compare him unfavorably withDavid (see 2Kings 14:3) or to equate him with Ahab and Jezebel(see 8:18). Rather, Manasseh was compared to the pagan nations thatJoshua had driven out of the land, which were destroyed because oftheir wickedness. Manasseh was the last straw. Because of hiscomplete abandonment to idolatry, God determined to make an end ofJerusalem (21:11–15).
Yetstill the judgment was delayed. Two years after Manasseh’sdeath, Josiah reigned on the throne of David, and early in his careerthe Book of the Law was rediscovered in the temple. Josiah called fornational repentance, and for a time Judah got rid of its idols andreturned to God (2Kings 23). But this repentance was relativelyshort-lived.
Josiahwas the last good king of Judah. God sent Judah prophets such asJeremiah, but they went unheeded. In the end, God sent KingNebuchadnezzar of Babylon up against his own beloved city, Jerusalem.Jerusalem and the temple were destroyed, many of its people killed,and most of those who were left carried into exile to Babylon.
Exileand Restoration
Thefall of Jerusalem in 586 BC essentially ended the existence of thetribes as independent political entities. For the remainder of theirhistory they were, almost without exception, under the heel of greatforeign powers. At this point, they were called “Jews.”Nebuchadnezzar conscripted some of the younger men to serve in hiscourt (Dan. 1). The deportees remained in Babylon until its empirefell to the Medes and the Persians under Cyrus the Great in 539 BC.
Cyrusissued a decree at that time allowing the Jews to return to theirancestral land and rebuild the temple of Yahweh. They began tomigrate back to the land of promise and began their efforts torebuild the temple and the city of Jerusalem. These efforts continuedunder a succession of Persian kings. Although the Jews were home andable once again to worship God in the way he had specified in thelaw, Nehemiah lamented that they were little more than slaves, sincethey were subject to Persia (Neh. 9:36). Gone was the dynasty ofDavid, gone were most of the tribes, and gone was the greatness ofdays past. The sins of their fathers had brought them to this sadsituation.
Inthe return to the land, the genealogies of the returnees were veryimportant. These preserved family and tribal identities so that theirlineages would not be lost. The books that originated in therestoration period preserve these lists (see 1Chron. 1–9).
Persiaand the entire ancient world eventually were conquered by Alexanderthe Great. His successors divided the land after his death; twogenerals controlled Syria to the north and Egypt to the south ofPalestine. They constantly squabbled over their borders, whichincluded Palestine. Finally, AntiochusIV Epiphanes (r.175–164BC), king of Syria, decided to turn Jerusalem into a Greek city. Hebrought great pressure on the Jews to abandon their faith. Jews foundwith a copy of the law were killed, and circumcision of infants wasforbidden. He ransacked the temple and placed an idol in it. SomeJews abandoned their faith, but others resisted. Finally, Antiochusdied, and the Jews for a short time enjoyed independence. Over time,the Roman Empire engulfed Palestine. Herod the Great ruled as king ofthe Jews for Rome in the years 37–4 BC. Upon Herod’sdeath, his kingdom was divided among his sons.
NewTestament
TheJews in Judea in Jesus’ day had learned to find their national,ethnic, and cultural identity in the law of Moses. They dutifullyfollowed the purity laws, especially in keeping the Sabbath. Theirreligion was centered on the temple, and they kept Passover and theother prescribed obligations. Although the one remaining tribe,Judah, no longer could boast of a king on the throne of David or evenindependence, it was a nation whose people thought of themselves asYahweh’s people. By Jesus’ time, they anticipated that adescendant of David, a Messiah, would arise to restore the lostkingdom of David.
Althoughthe northern tribes were lost, there was some limited continuingawareness of tribal identity in this period. The book of Esther’sMordecai is from the tribe of Benjamin, and there are a number ofreferences to Benjamin in the intertestamental literature (e.g.,2Macc. 3:4). Anna the prophetess was from the tribe of Asher(Luke 2:36). Paul knew himself to be from the tribe of Benjamin (Rom.11:1; Phil. 3:5). He used his knowledge of this fact to help bolsterhis argument that he was truly a Jew. The Levites also survived theexile, and the priestly caste continued. The kingly and priestlytribes remained, with a few others.
Jesusis presented in Matt. 1 as a direct descendant of David through theline of kings. He is the promised Messiah (John 1:41), the “Lionof the tribe of Judah” (Rev. 5:5). Jesus promised his twelvedisciples that some day they would rule over the tribes of Israel(Matt. 19:28). In Christ, the definition of the tribes of Israel hadchanged. Gentiles were now grafted onto the olive tree of Israel(Rom. 11:17). Revelation 7:4–10 records the number from eachtribe who bear the seal of the Lamb. After hearing this, John turnedand saw them: they were revealed to be a vast company of the redeemedfrom every tribe on earth. Thus, the church had spiritually becomethe twelve tribes of Israel.
InAD 70 the temple was destroyed. Soon afterward, Israel was scattered,not to be a nation again in the promised land until 1948.
“Word” is used in the Bible to refer to thespeech of God in oral, written, or incarnate form. In each of theseuses, God desires to make himself known to his people. Thecommunication of God is always personal and relational, whether hespeaks to call things into existence (Gen. 1) or to address anindividual directly (Gen. 2:16–17; Exod. 3:14). The prophetsand the apostles received the word of God (Deut. 18:14–22; John16:13), some of which was proclaimed but not recorded. The greatestrevelation in this regard is the person of Jesus Christ, who iscalled the “Word” of God (John 1:1, 14).
Theprimary focus of this article is the written form of the word of God,the Bible. The psalmist declared God’s word to be an eternalobject of hope and trust that gives light and direction (Ps. 119),and Jesus declared the word to be truth (John 17:17). The word isparticularized and intimately connected with God himself by means ofthe key phrases “your word,” “the word of God,”“the word of the Lord,” “word about Christ,”and “the word of Christ” (Rom. 10:17; Col. 3:16). Ourunderstanding of the word is informed by a variety of terms andcontexts in the canon of Scripture, a collection of which is found inPsalm 119.
Theologyof the Word
Fromthe perspective of many systematic theologians, the word of God isdefined with several essential labels. The word is the specialrevelation of God to humans—specifically, truth communicatedfrom God to his human creatures by supernatural intervention,including a disclosure of his mind and will, his attributes, and hisredemptive plans. This revealed word is inspired. Inspiration is anact of the Holy Spirit of God whereby he superintended the biblicalauthors so that they composed the canonical books of Scripture.Inspiration is verbal and plenary in that it extends to every part ofthe Bible and includes the choice of words used by the authors.
Theword of God is inerrant, free from error in every matter addressed,and infallible, true in every matter addressed. The locus ofinspiration, inerrancy, and infallibility is the original manuscriptsand not the translations. A translation is reliable when itaccurately reflects the meaning of the inspired originals (Matt.5:18; cf. John 10:35; 17:17; 2Tim. 3:16; 2Pet. 1:21). Andfinally, the word is authoritative. Because the Bible is the divinelyinspired word of God reliably composed in the originals withouterror, it is binding upon people in their relationship with their Godas well as their relationships with their fellow human beings.Biblical authority derives from the eternal character of the divineauthor and the revelatory content of the Scriptures.
Psalm119
Akey OT text extolling the word is Psalm 119 (cf. Pss. 1; 19). Thewriter glorifies God, his word, and his divine directions to peopleby means of an acrostic format that covers the subject of Torahmeditation. Eight synonyms are used for the “word” in thepsalm. The eight are translated in the NIV as “words”(v.57), “promise” (v.58), “statutes”(v.59), “commands” (v.60), “law”(v.61), “laws” (v.62), “precepts”(v.63), and “decrees” (v.64).
ThePs. 119 word vocabulary informs us that God has pierced the darknessof our existence with the light of his word to make himself known tous. The word is his word spoken to us and preserved for us. The psalmalso instructs us that the word is the will of God. When God piercedour darkness, he lit the path of freedom for us with his word. Hedescribed himself, defined righteousness, declared his love,announced his promises, and issued his warnings. Finally, thevocabulary establishes the authority of his word in our lives.Directions, commandments, laws, charges, and divine will ring withthe sound of authority. The word of God is an authoritativeproclamation from God to us that must be obeyed, that must be sought,that cannot be ignored.
Finally,Ps. 119 makes an intimate connection between the content of the word,things spoken, and the author of the things spoken. This connectionbetter enables us to understand the “Word” as the personof Jesus Christ in John 1. The progressive development of verses 1–2of Ps. 119 intimately connects the law of God, his statutes, and him,the one sought with all the heart. Verses 89–96 emphasize thedurability and eternality of the word in keeping with the eternalcharacter of God. In verse 114 the writer parallels God as refugewith putting hope in his word. Here the writer intimately connectsGod as a refuge with his word. In the Hebrew text “you”and “your word” stand side by side. In verses 137–44the writer aligns the righteous God with a righteous word. Accordingto verses 105, 130, 135, God and God’s word give light. Thelife-giving quality of the word and the Lord are proclaimed in verse93. Just as God is to be feared, so is his word (vv. 63, 120).
TheWord of God
Thetheme of the word in Ps. 119 is continued and clarified in the NT,accentuating the intimate connection between the word of God and Godhimself. The “Word” of God is the eternal Lord JesusChrist (John 1:1; 1John 1:1–4), who took on flesh andblood so that we might see the glory of the eternal God. Thesovereign glory of Christ as the Word of God is depicted in thevision of John in Rev. 19:13. As the Word of God, Jesus Christultimately gives us our lives (John 1:4; 6:33; 10:10), sustains ourlives (John 5:24; 6:51, 54; 8:51), and ultimately renders a justjudgment regarding our lives (John 5:30; 8:16, 26; 9:39; cf. Matt.25:31–33; Heb. 4:12).
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1. You Have To Die First
Illustration
William B. Kincaid, III
One minister surrounded himself at the church chancel with children during worship and began to talk to them about the upcoming holiday. When asked whose birthday would be celebrated, the well-informed group responded, "Martin Luther King, Jr." The minister inquired further by asking what kind of work King did. How much prompting it took is not certain, but the answer being fished for was given. "Martin Luther King, Jr., was the minister of a church."
In an attempt to draw an obvious parallel, the minister reminded the gathered faithful that was also his life's work. At that point, with a straightening of the necktie and some posturing which made him look a bit taller and a lot more distinguished, the minister wondered aloud about the possibility of a holiday being named for him. Across a couple of rows of pews came an innocent whisper that must have sounded like Jesus himself: "You have to die first."
2. The One That Will Be Sacrificed
Illustration
William B. Kincaid, III
"Well, I don't know what will happen now. We've got some difficult days ahead. But it doesn't matter with me now. Because I've been to the mountaintop. And I don't mind. Like anybody, I would like to live a long life. Longevity has its place. But I'm not concerned about that now. I just want to do God's will. And he's allowed me to go up to the mountain. And I've looked over. And I've seen the promised land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people will get to the promised land. And I'm happy, tonight. I'm not worried about anything. I'm not fearing any [man]. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord."
Those words, spoken by Martin Luther King, Jr., the night before he was assassinated in Memphis, still haunt us. To this day, they generate speculation and debate. Some are convinced that King knew he would be killed. With the kind of turmoil King was creating and the general upheaval that was being witnessed from courthouse squares to college campuses, it doesn't require much imagination to envision a scenario wherein King would be gunned down. King noted on that very night that the "... nation is sick. Trouble is in the land. Confusion all around."
Others are equally certain that King did not have a premonition about his own death. John Cartwright, who holds the professorship at BostonUniversity which bears King's name, believes that King was not predicting his own death. Rather, according to Cartwright, Dr. King was only aware that the arc of justice is long and that significant changes only happen over an extended period of time. In other words, King knew that his words might articulate the dream, but the reality of the dream might not be experienced until generations later.
We have debated the same issue with Jesus. Did Jesus know he was going to die? Did God send Jesus to earth to die? Or, as events evolved and pressure mounted, did it then become evident to Jesus that his faithfulness to God may bring about his own death? There are those who believe that Bethlehem and Calvary were interwoven into Jesus' life from the beginning. When John the Baptist declared that Jesus was the Lamb of God, it sounded like Jesus' crucifixion was certain from the outset. In a culture that sacrificed lambs twice a day in the temple, those words are a kiss of death. "Here is the Lamb of God" can be loosely understood to mean, "Hey, look here, everyone, here's the one that is going to be sacrificed."
3. The Can’t Help Its
Illustration
James W. Moore
A minister friend of mine tells about a woman in his church who is so excited to be a Christian. She has a shady past and had pretty much hit bottom when a friend reached out to her… and brought her to church. The church member welcomed her warmly and loved her into the circle of their love and God's love. She started going to church faithfully. She joined a wonderful Sunday School class. She began studying the Bible daily. She started praying regularly… and in the process was converted. She realized for the very first time in her life that God loved her… even her! She came to understand that even though she had done all those sordid things in her earlier life, that God still loved her, forgave her, accepted her, valued her, treasured her. She was absolutely bowled over by that "Amazing Grace" and she committed herself to Christ heart and soul. Recently she said to her minister, "I'm so excited to be a Christian, that I've got a strong case of the "can't help its."
This is also true of Andrew. He, too, had a strong case of the "can't help its." He was so grateful, so thrilled, so excited about Christ that he just could not sit still. He could not keep Jesus to himself.
4. Dance the Offering Forward
Illustration
James W. Moore
A missionary in Africa was preaching his first sermon in a mission church. When time came for the offering, the people danced their offerings forward. They danced and sang praise to God as they brought their offerings to the altar. It was a beautiful moment. What do you think? Should we get our ushers to do that?
After the service, he asked one of the people, "Why do you dance and sing when you bring your offering forward on Sunday morning?" Back came the answer: "How could we not dance? We are so grateful to God for what He has done for us in sending Jesus Christ to save us, that we have to dance and sing our thanksgiving and besides it says in the Bible, God loves a cheerful giver."
Let me ask you something. Do you feel gratitude to God that strongly? Do you have a strong case of the "can't help its" when it come to gratitude? When you are Christians, gratitude is the spirit of your lifestyle. When you are a Christian, you can't help but be grateful!
5. Miss Donna
Illustration
James W. Moore
Her name is Donna. Donna is a member of our church. She is a mentor in our Kids Hope USA program. Every week she goes to a nearby elementary school to be a friend, encourager, and mentor to a little boy named John. John looks to be 6 or 7 years old. Donna and John have bonded in a beautiful way. Though there is quite a difference in their ages, Miss Donna – as John calls her – has become John's best friend. Once each week, she visits him at school, helps him with his school work… and then "going the second mile" every Saturday, Donna takes John to do exciting things that without Donna, John would likely never get to do – things like the zoo, the museum, the Galleria.
A few months ago, Donna's husband died in his sleep. Little John came to the funeral to support his friend Miss Donna in her grief. At the reception in the Hines Baker Room after the memorial service, John stood beside Donna and held her hand. She had been there for him and now he was there for her. He would not leave her side. It was a beautiful moment and people in the room had tears in their eyes, so touched by John's intense commitment to lovingly stand by Miss Donna, his friend and mentor.
Some of us saw John eyeing the goodies on the reception table – punch and chocolate chip cookies in abundance… and some of us said to him, "John, would you like to walk over here and have some refreshments?" But no, he would not leave Donna's side. "I want to stay here with Miss Donna.," he would say. The love between the two of them was so radiant and powerful in that room.
Also in the room that day was a man from Chicago. He had flown all the way from Chicago to Houston to be with Donna. Do you know why? Because 38 years ago when he was in first grade, Donna had been his mentor at an elementary school in the Chicago area. He flies from Chicago to Houston every summer to see Donna and to thank her for what she did for him 38 years ago – and then he made this special trip to be with Donna when her husband suddenly died. That man from Chicago says to Donna every time he comes, "I am what I am today because of the love and support you gave me 38 years ago." He says, "Ms. Donna, you were the first person in my life who believed in me." And today little John says to her in words and actions: "Miss Donna, I love you. I know you love me. You are my best friend." Now, where did Donna learn to love like that, to reach out to people in need like that, to make a difference in people's lives like that? You know, don't you? The same place the disciple Andrew learned it – from Jesus.
6. Epiphany Moments
Illustration
Arthur G. Ferry
Working in a small town in Latin America, a woman felt despair. She was experiencing marital problems, as well as conflicts with people she worked with. Without warning, an earthquake struck one day. In those moments of panic and fear she ran with other people to the relative safety of a garden plaza as buildings shattered and dust billowed.
"For those moments I saw everything so clearly," she recalls, "how I could become so much kinder to my husband, how other relationships could work out. In an instant and with such gratitude I saw how it would be so easy for me to turn things around." In that dramatic moment this woman had glimpsed how the brokenness in her life could be mended. At that moment she saw clearly how she could bring about healing in her life. At that moment it was as if God had spoken to her in a most dramatic way.
God had told John in a personal epiphany, "He on whom you see the spirit descend and remain is the one who baptizes with the Holy Spirit." When John saw the Spirit descend upon Jesus in the form of a dove, he knew without a doubt that Jesus was the Messiah. John believed that day because of a personal act of revelation.
Sometimes that happens.The truth of God comes into ourlives in such a dramatic fashion that wecan scarcely deny that wehave been in His presence.
7. The Little Old Ladies behind the Iron Curtain
Illustration
Arthur G. Ferry
William Willimon, professor at Duke Divinity School, remembers when a friend of his visited the Soviet Union in the 1970s. Upon his return he announced that the church behind the Iron Curtain was mostly "irrelevant because the only people there are little old ladies." Dr. Willimon writes, "Looking back now at the collapse of communism, the difficulties of rebuilding the Soviet Union after a long period of spiritual bankruptcy, I hope my friend would now say, `Thank God for the little old ladies.' Their existence provided a continuing, visible, political rebuke to the Soviets."
It would be wonderful if our witness was as effective as that of those little old ladies. It would be wonderful if our witness, like Andrew's, was effective enough to challenge another Simon Peter. That is our task, and what a joyous, challenging task it is. Having found Christ, or more correctly having been found by Christ, we find others that they, too, may come and see.
8. What Are You Looking For?
Illustration
Susan R. Andrews
Chaim Potok, the American authorand Rabbi, was an intensely religious man; a Jew who explored the dimensions of faith in our lives. From an early age, Potok knew he wanted to be a writer. But his mother wasn't so sure. When he went away to college she said, "Son, now I know you want to be a writer. But I want you to think about brain surgery. You'll keep a lot of people from dying. And you'll make a lot of money." To which Potok responded, "No, Mama, I want to be a writer."
But, "No," is not what Mama wanted to hear. So, every vacation break for four years she would repeat her comments about his becoming a brain surgeon and keeping people from dying and making a lot of money, and always his response was the same. Finally the son had enough, and, when the same mantra began, he cut off his mother with exasperation, and with great passion he told his mother, "Mama, I don't want to keep people from dying, I want to show them how to live."
This morning's Gospel Lesson from John is a "call" story, but unlike so many call stories in scripture this one is not crisp, dramatic, or decisive. Today there is no flashing light, no booming voice, no clear instructions as to what the disciples are to do. Instead, what we hear is Jesus asking a question - a strange, penetrating question. The question is: "What are you looking for?"
9. We Would See Jesus
Illustration
Donald M. Tuttle
William Willimon notes that in many churches there is a little brass plaque attached to the preacher's side of the pulpit. It is not something the people in the pew can see, but something that no pastor can miss as he or she prepares to speak. It is a reminder of why people have come to church that morning. It simply reads: "We would see Jesus."
And it's true, isn't it? Isn't that why people come to worship?
Take Oscar for example. He had been in the church most of his life. Like many, he attended more or less regularly, gave as he could, and enjoyed the company of a few friends he had there. But when his wife was diagnosed with MS, his presence in worship took on a different thrust. He came wanting answers for his questions, peace amid life's uncertainty, healing for his wife's brokenness. He came wanting to see Jesus.
And we know how that is, don't we? We too want to see Jesus. But you know what I've noticed? A lot of the time we want to see Jesus, but we prefer to do it from a distance.
Take the two followers of John the Baptist in our lesson this morning. They are standing with their teacher when Jesus walks by. John recognizes Jesus, points him out to them, and announces that Jesus is the Lamb of God. Now one would think they would do exactly what they did - that they would drop everything, leave John and follow Jesus. But they do so at a distance. They hang back. They seem to want to watch from afar to get close, but not too close.
That's the way a lot of us may look for Jesus
10. What Do You Come to See?
Illustration
Keith Wagner
In the northern Portuguese town of Sobrado, a lady has a dog name Preta. Preta leaves her owner's home every Sunday morning at 5:00 a.m. and walks 16 miles to a Roman Catholic church in time to take her usual place next to the altar for mass. The dog stands and sits whenever worshippers do the same. She usually walks back home, though some of the parishioners will give her a ride. What is interesting is that the Portuguese newspaper Correio da Manha has reported that church attendance has grown as many people have attended just to see the faithful dog. Not the faithful God - the faithful dog. Go figure.
What are you looking for? Do you seek God or are you like the people in Sobrado, Italy who go to church to see a dog that worships? When someone misses worship in our church and they meet another member who worshipped they ask, "Who was there?" If the person is a member of a Pentecostal Church and misses worship and then sees a fellow parishioner who worshipped that Sunday they ask, "What happened?"
For some of us our faith is about relationships, friends, relatives and members of the flock. For others it is about what they experienced.
11. A Change in Posture
Illustration
King Duncan
In a cathedral in Copenhagen, Denmark, there is a magnificent statue of Jesus by the noted sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen. When Thorvaldsen first completed the sculpture he gazed upon the finished product with great satisfaction. It was a sculpture of Christ with face looking upward and arms extended upward. It was a statue of a majestic, conquering Christ.
Later that night, however, after the sculptor had left his fine new work in clay to dry and harden, something unexpected occurred. Sea mist seeped into the studio in the night. The clay did not harden as quickly as anticipated. The upraised arms and head of the sculpture began to drop. The majestic Christ with arms lifted up and head thrown back was transformed into a Christ with head bent forward and arms stretched downward as if in a pose of gentle invitation. At first Thorvaldsen was bitterly disappointed. As he studied the transformed sculpture, however, he came to see a dimension of Christ that had not been real to him before. It was the Christ who is a gently, merciful Savior. Thorvaldsen inscribed on the base of the completed statue, "Come Unto Me," and that picture of the Lamb of God in his mercy has inspired millions.
12. God’s Kind of Revenge
Illustration
King Duncan
A young soldier was utterly humiliated by his senior officer. The officer had gone beyond the bounds of acceptable behavior in disciplining the young soldier and knew it, so he said nothing as the younger man said through clenched teeth, "I'll make you regret this if it is the last thing I ever do." A few days later their company was under heavy fire and the officer was wounded and cut off from his troops. Through the haze of the battlefield he saw a figure coming to his rescue. It was the young soldier. At the risk of his own life, the young soldier dragged the officer to safety. The officer said, apologetically, "Son, I owe you my life." The young man laughed and said, "I told you that I would make you regret humiliating me if it was the last thing I ever did."
That is God's kind of revenge. "Behold the Lamb that takes away the sins of the world..." Something happened on Calvary that bridged the gap between a holy God and unholy humanity. We see Christ in his majesty but also in his mercy.
13. The Messiah Is Among You
Illustration
William White
There was a famous monastery which had fallen on very hard times. Formerly its many buildings were filled with young monks, and its huge chapel resounded with the singing of the choir. But now it was deserted. People no longer came there to be nourished by prayer. A handful of old monks shuffled through the cloisters and praised God with heavy hearts.
On the edge of the monastery woods, an old rabbi had built a tiny hut. He would come there from time to time to fast and pray. No one ever spoke with him, but whenever he appeared, the word would be passed from monk to monk: "The rabbi walks in the woods." And, for as long as he was there, the monks would feel sustained by his prayerful presence.
One day the abbot decided to visit the rabbi and open his heart to him. So, after the morning Eucharist, he set out through the woods. As he approached the hut, the abbot saw the rabbi standing in the doorway, his arms outstretched in welcome. It was as though he had been waiting there for some time. The two embraced like long-lost brothers. Then they stepped back and just stood there, smiling at one another with smiles their faces could hardly contain.
After a while, the rabbi motioned the abbot to enter. In the middle of the room was a wooden table with the Scriptures open on it. They sat there for a moment, in the presence of the Book. Then the rabbi began to cry. The abbot could not contain himself. He covered his face with his hands and began to cry, too. For the first time in his life, he cried his heart out. The two men sat there like lost children, filling the hut with their sobs and moistening the wood of the table with their tears.
After the tears had ceased to flow and all was quiet again, the rabbi lifted his head. "You and your brothers are serving God with heavy hearts," he said. "You have come to ask a teaching of me. I will give you a teaching, but you can only repeat it once. After that, no one must ever say it aloud again."
The rabbi looked straight at the abbot and said, "The Messiah is among you." For a while, all was silent. Then the rabbi said, "Now you must go." The abbot left without ever looking back.
The next morning, the abbot called his monks together in the chapter room. He told them that he had received a teaching from the rabbi who walks in the woods, and that this teaching was never again to be spoken aloud. Then he looked at each of his brothers and said, "The rabbi said that one of us is the Messiah."
The monks were startled by this saying. "What could it mean?" they asked themselves. "Is brother John the Messiah? No, he's too old and crotchety. Is brother Thomas? No, he's too stubborn and set in his ways. Am I the Messiah? What could this possibly mean?" They were all deeply puzzled by the rabbi's teaching. But no one ever mentioned it again.
As time went by, though, something unusual began to happen at the monastery. The monks began to treat one another with a very special reverence. There was a gentle, wholehearted, human quality about them now which was hard to describe, but easy to notice. They lived with one another as brothers who had finally found something. And yet, they prayed over the Scriptures together as those who were still looking for something. Visitors found themselves deeply moved by the genuine caring and sharing that went on among the brothers. Before long, people were again coming from far and wide to be nourished by the prayer life of these monks. And young men were asking, once again, to become part of the community.
In those days, the rabbi no longer walked in the woods. His hut had fallen into ruins. But somehow or other, the older monks who had taken his teaching to heart still felt sustained by his prayerful presence.
14. He Took Out His Lunch and I Took Out Mine
Illustration
Glenn E. Ludwig
There is a story out of the Middle Ages that goes something like this. It seems people were putting pressure on the Pope, saying to him, "Your Holiness, this is the capital of Christendom. There ought to be only Christians in Rome. Let's get rid of the Jews." The Pope however, replied, "I don't know. Before I do anything, I will have a theological discussion with the chief rabbi of Rome. If the rabbi says the right things, the Jews will be allowed to stay. If he says the wrong things, they will have to go."
So they invited the rabbi in. The Pope dismissed all the Cardinals and said, "Rabbi, we are both theologians. Theologians deal in symbols. Since we use symbols in our communication, let this discussion be entirely in symbols." The rabbi said that was fine with him.
First, the Pope made a large circle with one hand and the rabbi responded by pointing to him. Then the Pope thrust out both arms to the chief rabbi. The rabbi responded by pointing to the Pope with two fingers. Finally, the Pope looked around for an apple and held it up. The rabbi went through the pockets of his long caftan and took out a piece of matzoh. The Pope concluded, "This is one of the finest statements I have heard of. Of course the Jews will be allowed to stay," and he sent the rabbi away.
The Pope, then, brought in the Cardinals and said, "I don't know what you people have been fussing about. I said to the rabbi, 'There is one church and it encompasses the world.' And he said, 'You are the head of it.' Then I said to him, 'There are two swords, the secular and the ecclesiastical,' and he said, 'You hold them both.' And then I said, 'There are foolish people who say the earth is round,' and he said, 'No, the earth is flat.' "
The rabbi went home to his wife and told her. "You know, I haven't the foggiest idea what the fuss was all about. I got in there and the Pope said, ‘We've got you surrounded.' And I said, 'But we can get to you too.' Then he said, 'We can hack you to pieces,' and I said, 'We can poke your eyes out.' Then he took out his lunch and I took out mine."
Clear communication is not always easy. It takes work. And it's best started with listening.
15. The Nine of Us
Illustration
George Mikes
In Budapest, a man goes to the rabbi and complains, "Life is unbearable. There are nine of us living in one room. What can I do?"
The rabbi answers, "Take your goat into the room with you." The man in incredulous, but the rabbi insists. "Do as I say and come back in a week."
A week later the man comes back looking more distraught than before. "We cannot stand it," he tells the rabbi. "The goat is filthy."
The rabbi then tells him, "Go home and let the goat out. And come back in a week."
A radiant man returns to the rabbi a week later, exclaiming, "Life is beautiful. We enjoy every minute of it now that there's no goat only the nine of us."
16. Night and Day
Illustration
Maxie Dunnam
An elderly rabbi once asked his students how one could recognize the time when night ends and day begins. “Is it when from a great distance you can tell a dog from a sheep?” one student asked.
“No,” said the rabbi.
"Is it when from a great distance one can tell a date palm from a fig tree?” asked another student.
“No,” said the rabbi.
“When, then, how can one recognize that the night is over and day has begun?” the student asked.
The wise rabbi replied, “It is when you look into the face of any human creature, and see your sister or brother there. Until then, night is with us.”
The wisest rabbi of all, Jesus of Nazareth, would agree. He said, “Inasmuch as you did it unto the least of these, you did it unto me.”
17. FISHERMAN
Illustration
Stephen Stewart
Isaiah 19:8 - "The fishermen will mourn and lament, all who cast hook in the Nile; and they will languish who spread nets upon the water."
Matthew 4:18 - "As he walked by the Sea of Galilee, he saw two brothers, Simon who is called Peter and Andrew his brother, casting a net into the sea; for they were fishermen."
Luke 5:2 - "And he saw two boats by the lake; but the fishermen had gone out of them and were washing their nets."
Fishing was an important vocation of Bible land people. There were four methods of fishing common in biblical times which are referred to in the Bible:
First, there was spear fishing. In this method, a harpoon or trident was thrown at the fish. Job said, "Can you fill his skin with harpoons, or his head with fishing spears?" (Job 41:7). This means that fishing is very old.
The second method was angling; the common hook and line method. Peter used a hook to catch the fish in which he found a coin to pay the temple tax (Matthew 17:27). We also have our text from Isaiah and also Amos, who said, "They shall take you away with hooks, even the last of you with fishhooks" (Amos 4:2). It’s interesting to note that archaeologists, have found such fishhooks in Galilee.
The third method was that of casting a drag-net. But this can be broken down into two further methods: in one, boats form a circle, the net is placed in the water, and the boats pull in the net as they move to the center; in the other, they let down the nets in a semi-circle, and then draw it to shore. Peter and Andrew were casting nets into the sea when Jesus met them and called them to be his disciples.
The fourth method is that of the small hand net. The net is draped over the arm of the fisherman who stands on or near the shore; the net is thrown in a cone-shaped fashion over the water and lead weights pull it to the bottom; and then the net is drawn back.
The nets were always washed after they were used, and hung in the sun to dry. The fishermen had to be constantly on their guard so that rips and tears were mended immediately. James and John were mending their nets when Jesus spoke to them.
Many of the lands surrounding Israel enjoyed fishing and regarded it as a sport. Not so the Hebrews - they considered it hard work! But it was a staple part of their diet, and so a necessary occupation.
It also very early had developed into almost a science. Fishermen often worked in groups, or guilds, and they sometimes fished at night, helping each other. They were adept at grading fish, throwing out the small ones, and keeping the more edible sizes.
Today fishermen carry on in many areas. All you have to do is go through the frozen food sections of the groceries, and look at the many kinds of fish waiting for consumption, and you will agree that many men have worked many long hours to produce such an array. Or go to the canned foods sections. The same holds true there. There are even shelves full of delicacies from other lands, such as pickled octopus, preserved tuna, and such. They may not meet our tastes, but at least they do show us that fishing is still a very big time operation.
18. The Fishermen
Illustration
Maurice A. Fetty
Peter, Andrew, James, and John,with their fathers, were professional, commercial fishermen on Lake Galilee. This small, oval-shaped lake, twelve by seven miles, had long been an important source of fish not only for Palestine, but for export to places as distant as Rome. The Jewish historian Josephus tells us that in his time (shortly after Christ) at least 130 fishing boats sailed Galilee. Their catches were salted and sent everywhere as a staple in their diets. While Peter, Andrew, James, and John were not wealthy, they were not poor either. Apparently successful in their businesses, they owned their own boats and used hired help to expand their operation. Like most fishermen, they knew the importance of timing, location, bait, and patience. And like many fishermen, they no doubt had a kind of mystical appreciation of the sea and the weather and all the world of nature.
19. Just a Visitor
Illustration
Michael P. Green
An anonymous writer tells about an American tourist’s visit to thePolish rabbi Hofetz Chaim:
Astonished to see that the rabbi’s home was only a simple room filled with books, plus a table and a bench, the tourist asked, “Rabbi, where is your furniture?”
“Where is yours?” replied the rabbi.
“Mine?” asked the puzzled American. “But I’m a visitor here. I’m only passing through.”
“So am I,” said Hofetz Chaim.
20. We Need a Sign
Illustration
Jon S. Dawson
Rabbi Feldman had been having trouble with his congregation. It seemed they could agree upon nothing, and controversy filled the air until the Sabbath itself became an area of conflict, and unhappiness filled the synagogue. The president of the congregation organized a meeting of 10 elders and the rabbi. They met in the conference room of the synagogue, sitting about a magnificent mahogany table. One by one the issues were dealt with and on each issue, it became more and more apparent that the rabbi was a lonely voice in the wilderness.
The president said, "Come, Rabbi, enough of this. Let us vote and allow the majority to rule." He passed out the slips of paper, and each man made his mark. The slips were collected and the president said, "You may examine them, Rabbi. It is 11 to one against you. We have the majority."
Whereupon the rabbi rose to his feet, "So", he said, "You now think because of the vote that you are right and I am wrong. Well, I stand here and he raised his arms impressively and call upon the Holy One of Israel to give us a sign that I am right and you are wrong."
Suddenly, there came a frightful crack of thunder and a brilliant flash of lightning that struck the mahogany table and cracked it in two. The room was filled with smoke and the president and the elders were hurled to the floor.
But the rabbi was untouched, his eyes flashing and a grim smile on his face.
Slowly, the president lifted himself above what was left of the table. His hair was singed, his glasses were hanging from one ear, and his clothing was in disarray. He said, "All right, 11 to two. We still have the majority."
Peter needed a sign that it was Jesus walking on the water. Jesus honored his desire by granting him the power to walk on the water. Then Peter took his eyes off Jesus and allowed the storm to grip him with fear, and he began to sink. "Lord, save me!"
There are times in our lives when we need a sign from God. There are times when we take our eyes off Jesus. There are times when we feel we are sinking into the darkness of despair. This story teaches us that, even in the midst of our need for a sign, even in the midst of our doubts,….it is okay to cry out, "Lord, save me!" And God will reach out to us, and with a strong grip, pull us out of the pit, and away from the storm, into the calmness of his presence.
21. The Damage Left Behind
Illustration
Staff
If you don't say it, they can't repeat it. Yiddish folklore offers a telling tale about gossip-makers. One such man had told so many malicious untruths about the local rabbi that, overcome by remorse, he begged the rabbi to forgive him. "And, Rabbi, tell me how I can make amends."
The rabbi sighed, "Take two pillows, go to the public square and there cut the pillows open. Wave them in the air. Then come back."
The rumormonger quickly went home, got two pillows and a knife, hastened to the square, cut the pillows open, waved them in the air and hastened back to the rabbi's chambers. "I did just what you said, Rabbi!"
"Good." The rabbi smiled. "Now, to realize how much harm is done by gossip, go back to the square..."
"And?"
"And collect all your feathers."
22. Casting the Net on the Other Side of the Boat
Illustration
John R. Steward
Since many of the followers of Jesus were fishermen, it made sense for Jesus to use fishing as an example of the Christian life. In Matthew 4:19, as Jesus is walking by the Sea of Galilee, he sees Simon Peter and Andrew in the process of fishing. He says to them, "Follow me, and I will make you fishers of men."
In this text, Jesus gives them another picture of the work they would be doing. On their own, they are not able to catch many fish, but when Jesus commands them to cast the net on the other side of the boat, they catch more fish than they can handle. How are we doing at catching fish? Perhaps the problem is that we keep doing it the same way and the Lord would like us to try a new method.
The apostle Paul in 1 Corinthians 9:22 says, "I have become all things to all men, that I might by all means save some." Maybe that's the same as casting your nets on the other side of the boat.
Several years ago when I was visiting Norway, the land of my great-grandparents, I learned something about evangelism. Since my wife was born in Norway, her family was giving us a tour of the country that on occasion was off the beaten track. On our way from Trondheim to the little island of Stord, we came across one of the famous Stave churches. These churches are around 1,000 years old. They are made of wood and are built with large posts or staves that go into the ground. At one time, there were around 1,000 Stave churches; now there are only thirty. One of the reasons is that the wood rots over time. However, the one that we saw had its posts in a rock foundation, and this explains why it is still in existence.
What was really fascinating to me were the symbols on the walls. I recognized most of them but there were some that I did not understand. I asked one of the guides what they meant. She told me that the symbols that I did not recognize were pagan symbols. It seems that when King Olaf became a Christian, he would go into the villages and demand that the people all become Christians. Since the Christian faith was forced on the people, they would display pagan symbols so as to meet the people where they were.
I am not suggesting that we use pagan symbols to reach our current society. However, we can do some things with music and in other areas that would better relate to our culture. If the Norwegians and the apostle Paul can learn that, certainly we can try to relate to our culture without destroying the gospel. Perhaps this is what Jesus meant by casting the net on the other side of the boat.
23. Where Are You Going?
Illustration
King Duncan
There is an amusing Hasidic story about a rabbi who crossed a village square every morning on his way to the temple to pray. One morning, a large Russian Cossack soldier, who happened to be in a vile mood, accosted him, saying, "Hey, rabbi, where are you going?"
The rabbi simply said, "I don't know."
This infuriated the soldier. "What do you mean, you don't know? Every morning for twenty-five years you have crossed the village square and gone to the temple to pray. Don't fool with me. Why are you telling me you don't know?" He grabbed the old rabbi by the coat and dragged him off to jail.
Just as the Cossack was about to push him into the cell, the rabbi turned to him, and softly said, "You see, I didn't know."
Someone asks, when will Christ return, when will history come to a climax and a new world order, an order straight from God, be introduced? The answer is, we don't know. The early church thought it would be in their lifetime. It's been 2,000 years. "Why does the Lord tarry?" many ask. We don't know. We should not be surprised at that. There is much in life that God has not revealed to us. We don't even know what tomorrow might bring.
24. The Unthinkable Shame
Illustration
Phillip Yancy
In a memoir of the years before World War II, Pierre Van Paassen tells of an act of humiliation by Nazi storm troopers who had seized an elderly Jewish rabbi and dragged him to headquarters.
In the far end of the same room, two colleagues were beating another Jew to death, but the captors of the rabbi decided to have some fun with him. They stripped him naked and commanded that he preach the sermon he had prepared for the coming Sabbath in the synagogue. The rabbi asked if he could wear his yarmulke, and the Nazis, grinning, agreed. It added to the joke. The trembling rabbi proceeded to deliver in a raspy voice his sermon on what it means to walk humbly before God, all the while being poked and prodded by the hooting Nazi, and all the while hearing the last cries of his neighbor at the end of the room.
When you read the gospel accounts of the imprisonment, torture, and execution of Jesus, it might make you think of that naked rabbi standing humiliated in a police station. It's hard to fathom the indignity, the SHAME endured by God's Son on earth, stripped naked, flogged, spat on, struck in the face, garland with thorns.
Neither could Peter and that is why he protest so. That the Messiah, whom he has now recognized, should suffer at the hands of the Roman enemies on a cruel and shameful cross was unthinkable.
25. The Rabbi and the White Horse
Illustration
Carla Thompson Powell
A young man once came to a great rabbi and asked him to make the younger man a rabbi. It was wintertime then. The rabbi stood at the window looking out upon the yard, while the rabbinical candidate was droning into his ears a glowing account of his piety and learning.
The young man said, "You see, Rabbi, I always go dressed in spotless white like the sages of old. I never drink any alcoholic beverages; only water ever passes my lips. Also, I live a plain and simple life. I have sharp-edged nails inside my shoes to mortify me. Even in the coldest weather, I lie naked in the snow to torment my flesh. Also daily, I receive forty lashes on my bare back to complete my perpetual penance."
As the young man spoke, a white horse was led into the yard and to the water trough. It drank, and then it rolled in the snow, as horses sometimes do.
"Just look!" cried the rabbi. "That animal, too, is dressed in white. It also drinks nothing but water, has nails in its shoes and rolls naked in the snow. Also, rest assured, it gets its daily ration of forty lashes on the rump from its master. Now, I ask you, is it a saint, or is it a horse?!?!"
Which is more important – what goes into us or what comes out of us? Which defines us more – our outside behavior or our inside motivation?
26. No Good Unless It's Used
Illustration
Staff
A rabbi and a soap maker went for a walk together. The soap maker said, "What good is religion? Look at all the trouble and misery of the world! Still there, even after years thousands of years of teaching about goodness and truth and peace. Still there, after all the prayers and sermons and teachings. If religion is good and true, why should this be?"
The rabbi said nothing. They continued walking until he noticed a child playing in the gutter. Then the rabbi said, "Look at the child. You say that soap makes people clean, but see the dirt on that youngster. Of what good is soap? With all the soap in the world, the child is still filthy. I wonder how effective soap is, after all!"
The soap maker protested. "But, Rabbi, soap cannot do any good unless it is used!"
"Exactly," replied the Rabbi. "Exactly!" Norm Lawson
27. On The Surface
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
A rabbi was asked a question by a pupil, referring to Deuteronomy 6:6- "And these words, which I command thee this day, shall be upon thy heart." "Why is it said this way?" the pupil asked. "Why are we not told to place them in our heart?"The rabbi answered that it is not within man's power to place the divine teachings directly in his heart. "All that we can do is place them on the surface of the heart so that when the heart breaks they will drop in."
28. Suffering for Independence
Illustration
Brett Blair
Fifty-six men signed the Declaration of Independence. Their conviction resulted in untold sufferings for themselves and their families. Of the 56 men, five were captured by the British and tortured before they died. Twelve had their homes ransacked and burned. Two lost their sons in the Revolutionary Army. Another had two sons captured. Nine of the fifty-six fought and died from wounds or hardships of the war. Carter Braxton of Virginia, a wealthy planter and trader, saw his ships sunk by the British navy. He sold his home and properties to pay his debts and died in poverty.
At the battle of Yorktown, the British General Cornwallis had taken over Thomas Nelson's home for his headquarters. Nelson quietly ordered General George Washington to open fire on the Nelson home. The home was destroyed and Nelson died bankrupt. John Hart was driven from his wife's bedside as she was dying. Their thirteen children fled for their lives. His fields and mill were destroyed. For over a year, he lived in forests and caves, returning home only to find his wife dead and his children vanished. A few weeks later, he died from exhaustion.
Such were the sacrifices of the founding fathers. There are no movements that have shaped the world where sacrifice was not called upon. And of course in the church we have all our grace predicated on a sacrifice and it didn't stop at the cross. Jesus told his disciples that they too would need to take up the cross. And that's what they did:
- Matthew suffered martyrdom by being slain with a sword at a distant city of Ethiopia.
- Mark expired at Alexandria, after being cruelly dragged through the streets of that city.
- Luke was hanged upon an olive tree in the classic land of Greece.
- John was put in a cauldron of boiling oil, but escaped death in a miraculous manner, and was afterward banished to Patmos.
- Peter was crucified at Rome with his head downward.
- James, the Greater, was beheaded at Jerusalem.
- James, the Less, was thrown from a lofty pinnacle of the temple, and then beaten to death with a fuller's club.
- Bartholomew was flayed alive.
- Andrew was bound to a cross, whence he preached to his persecutors until he died.
- Thomas was run through the body with a lance at Coromandel in the East Indies.
- Jude was shot to death with arrows.
- Matthais was first stoned and then beheaded.
- Barnabas of the Gentiles was stoned to death at Salonica.
- Paul, after various tortures and persecutions, was at length beheaded at Rome by the Emperor Nero.
29. A Little Silver
Illustration
Michael P. Green
One day a certain old, rich man of a miserable disposition visited a rabbi, who took the rich man by the hand and led him to a window. “Look out there,” he said. The rich man looked into the street, “What do you see?” asked the rabbi.
“I see men, women, and children,” answered the rich man.
Again the rabbi took him by the hand and this time led him to a mirror. “Now what do you see?”
“Now I see myself,” the rich man replied.
Then the rabbi said, “Behold, in the window there is glass, and in the mirror there is glass. But the glass of the mirror is covered with a little silver, and no sooner is the silver added than you cease to see others, but you see only yourself.”
30. The Cost of Discipleship - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
The mark of a great leader is the demands he makes upon his followers. The Italian freedom fighter Garibaldi offered his men only hunger and death to free Italy. Winston Churchill told the English people that he had nothing to offer them but "blood, sweat, toil, and tears" in their fight against the enemies of England. Jesus demanded that his followers carry a cross. A sign of death.
- Andrew died on a cross
- Simon was crucified
- Bartholomew was flayed alive
- James (son of Zebedee) was beheaded
- The other James (son of Alphaeus) was beaten to death
- Thomas was run through with a lance
- Matthias was stoned and then beheaded
- Matthew was slain by the sword
- Peter was crucified upside down
- Thaddeus was shot to death with arrows
- Philip was hanged
The demands that Jesus makes upon those who would follow him are extreme. Christianity is not a Sunday morning religion. It is a hungering after God to the point of death if need be. It shakes our foundations, topples our priorities, pits us against friend and family, and makes us strangers in this world. We sing, "What a Friend We Have in Jesus." But, we must come to see that on many occasions he is not our friend but our adversary.
One day, as Jesus was being followed by a large crowd, he turned on the them, sensing that the demands of discipleship were not getting through, he told two parables. In these parables we learn the three great requirements of Christianity. To follow Jesus:
1. We must establish our priorities.
2. We must count the cost.
3. We must pay the price.
31. Unwise and Wise Living
Illustration
William R. Baker
Jewish rabbis tell a poignant story that drives home the point of Proverbs 18:21. As the story goes (and five versions of this appear in Greek literature), Rabbi Simeon ben Gamaliel one day asked his servant to go to buy some good food for him in the market. When the servant returned home, he presented the rabbi with a tongue.
The next day, the rabbi told the servant to go to the market to buy some bad food. Again, the servant returned with a tongue.
When the rabbi asked the servant why he returned with a tongue both times, the servant made this astute observation: "Good comes from it and bad comes from it. When the tongue is good, there is nothing better, and when it is bad, there is nothing worse."
32. What Have You Heard?
Illustration
Staff
A rabbi and his pupil were discussing God's Word:
Rabbi: Herschel, do you know the sacred scriptures?
Pupil: Yes, teacher, I have been studying them.
Rabbi: And, do you know the phrase, 'Thus have I heard?'
Pupil: Oh, yes, that is throughout the scriptures.
Rabbi: Herschel, what have you heard?
33. A Response to the Beatitudes
Illustration
Brett Blair & James Garrett
If the disciples were students and Jesus was professor the beatitudes would have come off a bit different. Jesus takeshis disciples up the mountain and gathersthem around, and says,
Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
Blessed are the meek.
Blessed are they that mourn.
Blessed are the merciful.
Blessed are they who thirst for justice.
Blessed are you when persecuted.
Blessed are you when you suffer.
Be glad and rejoice for your reward is great in heaven.
Then Simon Peter said, "Are we supposed to write this down?"
And Andrew asked, "Are we supposed to know this?"
And James asked, "Will we have a test on this?"
And Phillip said, "I don't have any paper."
And Bartholomew asked, "Do we have to turn this in?"
And John said, "The other disciples didn't have to learn this."
And Matthew asked, "Can I go to the boys' room?"
And Judas asked, "What does this have to do with real life?"
Then one of the Pharisees who was present asked to see Jesus' lesson plan and inquired of Jesus, "Where is your syllabusand lesson plan?"
And Jesus wept.
34. Never Underestimate the Power of a Cold Cup of Water - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
Now I would like to stop the world for just one minute and ask you to think back. Think back with me to the first century. Think about those 50 years after Jesus' death and what it must been like for Jesus' disciples. Before the last one died their efforts had brought 500,000 men, women, and children into the ranks of the church. But what they had to suffer in order to accomplish this task is seldom discussed. We like the outcome of their discipleship but we don't want to hear the cost of discipleship. So for the record here is the cost: History tells us...
- John died of extreme old age exiled to the island of Patmos.
- Judas Iscariot, after betraying his Lord, hanged himself.
- Peter was crucified; head downward, during the persecution of Nero.
- Andrew died on a cross at Patrae, a Grecian Colony.
- James, the younger, son of Alphaeus, was thrown from a pinnacle of the Temple, and then beaten to death with a club.
- Bartholomew was flayed alive in Albanapolis, Armenia.
- James, the elder son of Zebedee, was beheaded at Jerusalem.
- Thomas, the doubter, was run through the body with a lance at Coromandel, in the East Indies.
- Philip was hanged against a pillar at Heropolis.
- Thaddeus was shot to death with arrows.
- Simon died on a cross in Persia (what we now call Iran.)
- Matthew was first stoned and then beheaded.
What sacrifices! And I ask you why? Why did they choose to die this way? Why desert your father and mother, your wife and child, and your home? Why put up with the constant humiliation, and hunger, and persecution, and defeat town after town after town?
I'll tell you why, because, in the words of Apostle Paul, they were held captive by the words and teachings of Jesus Christ. It is Paul's way of saying they were slaves to Christ.
It is quite likely we shall never be tested to the extent that the disciples were but there are some ways to gauge our commitment. Let's look at a couple this morning...
1. Sacrifice is a sign of mature commitment.
2. Hospitality is a sign of discipleship.
3. A cup of water is a sign that Christ is welcome.
35. If You Were God
Illustration
Benjamin Hirsch, a survivor of the Holocaust, tells a story about the ancient rabbi Baal Shem-Tov. One day, the rabbi and his students were standing on a hill when they noticed foreign troops invading their town. From their vantage point on the hill, they were able to see all the horror and violence of the attack. The rabbi looked up to Heaven and cried out, "Oh, if only I were God."
A student asked, "But, Master, if you were God, what would you do differently?"
The rabbi answered him, "If I were God, I would do nothing differently. If I were God, I would understand."
36. Giving Thanks for Our Trouble
Illustration
Ours is a God who does not despise or abhor the affliction of the afflicted and does not hide his face from them." There is always a sense in which great living is found in the midst of suffering and tears.
An old Yiddish folk story tells of a well-to-do gentleman of leisured much interested in the Hebrew Scriptures. He visited a wise rabbi to ask a question. He said: "I think I grasp the sense and meaning of these writings except for one thing. I cannot understand how we can be expected to give God thanks for our troubles." The rabbi knew instantly that he could not explain this with mere words. He said to the gentleman: "If you want to understand this, you will have to visit Isaac the water-carrier." The gentleman was mystified by this, but knowing the rabbi to be wise, crossed to a poor section of the settlement and came upon Isaac the water-carrier, an old man who had been engaged in mean, lowly, backbreaking labor for some fifty years.
The gentleman explained the reason for his visit. Isaac paused from his labors. Finally, after several minutes of silence, looking baffled, hespoke: "I know that the rabbi is the wisest of men. But I cannot understand why he would send you to me with that question. I can't answer it because I've had nothing but wonderful things happen to me. I thank God every morning and night for all his many blessings on me and my family."
It is true, is it not? The pure in heart see God. The humble in spirit know Christ's joy and enter into God's glory. "For I consider," writes Paul, "that the sufferings of the present time are not worth comparing with the glory that is to be revealed to us."
37. Christmas Surprises
Illustration
King Duncan
Under a cultural-exchange program, Alan Abramsky and his family in Roanoke, Texas, were hosts to a rabbi from Russia at Christmas time. They decided to introduce him to a culinary treat that was probably not available in his country: They took him to their favorite Chinese restaurant.
Throughout the meal, the rabbi spoke excitedly about the wonders of North America in comparison to the bleak conditions in his homeland. When they had finished eating, the waiter brought the check and presented each of them with a small brass Christmas-tree ornament as a seasonal gift.
They all laughed when Abramsky's father pointed out that the ornaments were stamped "Made in India." But the laughter subsided when they saw that the rabbi was quietly crying. Concerned, Abramsky's father asked the rabbi if he was offended because he'd been given a gift for a Christian holiday.
He smiled, shook his head and said, "Nyet. I was shedding tears of joy to be in a wonderful country in which a Buddhist gives a Jew a Christmas gift made by a Hindu!" A time of miracles. A time for stories.
From time to time we hear someone say, "Wouldn't it be great if it could be Christmas all year long." Surprise! That was God's intent. That is why God invaded our planet and gave us the gift of God's Son. There is only one thing that stands in the way of celebrating Christmas all year long.
You and I.
38. To Jesus from the Pharisaic Management Consultants
Illustration
Ray Osborne
With all the knowledge the Pharisees possessed that was handed down to them from the prophets I often find myself wondering how they could have missed the fact that quite often God chose to use the most unqualified person or the most ordinary individual to do the most ordinary things. I came across a letter once that went something like this:
"TO: Jesus, Son of Joseph, Woodcrafter's Carpenter Shop
"FROM: Pharisaic Management Consultants
"Dear Sir:
"Thank you for submitting the resumes of the twelve men you have picked for managerial positions in your new organization. All of them have now taken our battery of tests, and we have not only run the results through our computer, but also arranged personal interviews for each one of them with our psychologist and vocational aptitude consultant. It is the staff's opinion that most of your nominees are lacking in background, education and vocational aptitude for the type of enterprise you are undertaking. They do not have the team concept. We would recommend that you continue your search for persons of proven experience in managerial ability and proven capacity.
"Simon Peter is emotionally unstable and given to fits of anger. Andrew has absolutely no qualities of leadership. The two brothers, James and John, the sons of Zebedee place personal interests above company loyalty. Thomas demonstrates a questioning attitude that would tend to undermine morale. We also feel that it is our duty to tell you that Matthew has been blacklisted by the Greater Jerusalem Better Business Bureau. James, the son of Alphaeus, and Thaddaeus definitely have radical leanings and they both registered a high score on the manic depressive scale.
"One of the candidates, however, shows great potential. He is a man of ability and resourcefulness, meets people well, has a keen business mind and contacts in high places. He is highly motivated, ambitious and responsible. We recommend Judas Iscariot as your comptroller and right-hand man. All of the other profiles are self-explanatory.
"We wish you every success in your new venture,
Sincerely yours,
James, son of John"
39. The Center of the Earth
Illustration
Staff
When Rabbi Joshua ben Hanania went to Athens to dispute with the philosophers there, they asked him many questions, and he answered them all successfully.
One of their questions was: "Where is the center of the earth?"
Rabbi Joshua pointed with his forefinger to a spot on the ground nearby, and said, "Here."
They said, "How do we know that you are right?"
He said, "Bring your measuring rods, and measure it for yourselves." (Talmud)
40. Who You Really Are
Illustration
Marc Gafni
Rabbi Marc Gafni recalls one of the first bar mitzvahs he ever performed. It was for a boy named Louis. Louis was awkward and sad. His insensitive parents did little to encourage his self-esteem. They implied that he was too dumb to learn the traditional Hebrew passages a boy recites for his bar mitzvah.
Rabbi Gafni was determined to bring out the best in Louis. He spent extra time teaching him the songs and prayers. He discovered that Louis was smart, and had a fantastic singing voice. On the day of his bar mitzvah, Louis performed beautifully. At the end of the ceremony, Rabbi Gafni stood and spoke directly to Louis. He said, "Louis, this morning you met your real self. This is who you are. You are good, graceful, talented, and smart. Whatever people told you yesterday, and Louis, whatever happens tomorrow, promise me one thing. Remember . . . this is you. Remember, and don't ever lose it."
A few years later, Louis wrote to Rabbi Gafni. The boy whose parents predicted that he was too dumb to perform a traditional bar mitzvah was studying for his medical degree at an Ivy League university. He was also engaged to be married. Louis ended his letter by saying, ". . . I kept my promise -I always remembered my bar mitzvah morning when you said that this is who I am. For this, I thank you."
41. The Passing of the Apostles
Illustration
Staff
Tradition holds that the Apostles died in the following manner:
- Matthew suffered martyrdom by being slain with a sword at a distant city of Ethiopia.
- Mark expired at Alexandria, after being cruelly dragged through the streets of that city.
- Luke was hanged upon an olive tree in the classic land of Greece.
- John was put in a cauldron of boiling oil, but escaped death in a miraculous manner, and was afterward banished to Patmos.
- Peter was crucified at Rome with his head downward.
- James, the Greater, was beheaded at Jerusalem.
- James, the Less, was thrown from a lofty pinnacle of the temple, and then beaten to death with a fuller's club.
- Bartholomew was flayed alive.
- Andrew was bound to a cross, whence he preached to his persecutors until he died.
- Thomas was run through the body with a lance at Coromandel in the East Indies.
- Jude was shot to death with arrows.
- Matthais was first stoned and then beheaded.
- Barnabas of the Gentiles was stoned to death at Salonica.
- Paul, after various tortures and persecutions, was at length beheaded at Rome by the Emperor Nero.
42. Funny You Should Mention It…
Illustration
King Duncan
A Jewish comedian tells about two men of his faith who met on the street. "Abe, why are you looking so sad?" asks Isaac. Abe answers: "It's my son. I sent him off to college, and now he has come back home all full of Gentile ideas. Where did I go wrong?" Isaac says: "Funny you should mention it! My son, too, has come home from college, with his head all messed up, filled with Gentile ideas. There is but one course open to us. We will ask the Rabbi."
So they go to the Synagogue and obtain an audience with the Rabbi. They say to the Rabbi, "Our two sons, whom we have raised to be devout followers of the Law, have come home from college full of Gentile ideas. What can we do about it?" The Rabbi answers: "Funny you should mention it! My son also has come back from college with all sorts of Gentile ideas. I assure you my friends, this problem is beyond human solution. We must go into the place of worship and pray." The three go in and spread their hands in supplication to the Lord. No sooner have they articulated their common lament that their sons have become filled with Gentile ideas than the lights go out, the building is filled with clouds of smoke, and a thunderous voice answers them: "Funny you should mention it . . ."
43. Keeping It Fresh
Illustration
Brian Stoffregen
Usually the orthodox rabbis of Europe boasted distinguished rabbinical genealogies, but Rabbi Yechiel of Ostrowce was an exception. He was the son of a simple baker and he inherited some of the forthright qualities of a man of the people.
Once, when a number of rabbis had gathered at some festivity, each began to boast of his eminent rabbinical ancestors. When Rabbi Yechiel's turn came, he replied gravely, "In my family, I'm the first eminent ancestor.
His colleagues were shocked by this piece of impudence, but said nothing. Immediately after, the rabbis began to expound Torah. Each one was asked to hold forth on a text culled from the sayings of one of his distinguished rabbinical ancestors.
One after another the rabbis delivered their learned dissertations. At last it came time for Rabbi Yechiel to say something. He arose and said, "My masters, my father was a baker. He taught me that only fresh bread was appetizing and that I must avoid the stale. This can also apply to learning."
And with that Rabbi Yechiel sat down.
44. God Is Watching You
Illustration
Adin Steinsaltz
“My great-grandfather, who was a Hassidic Rabbi, was once driving along a country road. The coachman saw an apple orchard, jumped out, and began to take some apples. The Rabbi cried out, ‘You are being watched! You are being watched!’ The coachman did not linger a second----he jumped back in the carriage and drove the horses as fast as he could. After a while, when they were a considerable distance away, he stopped and said, ‘But I did not see anybody watching!’ The Rabbi replied, ‘God is watching you.’”
45. Loving out of Obligation
Illustration
David A. Cooper
A rabbi was asked, "Which act of charity is higher - giving out of obligation or giving from the heart?"
All in the class were inclined to respond that giving from the heart had something more in it, but they knew the rabbi was going to say just the opposite, because in spiritual teaching nothing is logical. They were not disappointed.
"Giving from the heart is a wonderful thing," the rabbi said, "It is a very high act and should never be demeaned. But there is something much more important that happens when somebody gives charity out of obligation.
"Consider who is doing the giving. When somebody gives from the heart, there is a clear sense of oneself doing something; in other words, heartfelt charity always involves ego gratification.
"However, when we give out of obligation, when we give at a moment that every part of us is yelling NO! because of one reason or another - perhaps the beneficiary is disgusting, or it is too much money, or any of thousands of reasons we use to avoid giving charity - then we are confronting our own egos, and giving nonetheless. Why? Because we are supposed to. And what this means is that it is not us doing the giving, rather we are vehicles through which God gives...
46. Obeying the Call
Illustration
Staff
What we are called from and called to:
- Called from labor to rest (Matt. 11:28)
- Called from death to life (1 John 3:14)
- Called from bondage to liberty (Gal 5:13)
- Called out of darkness into light (1 Pet. 2:9)
- Called from bondage to peace (1 Cor. 7:15
- Called to the fellowship of His Son (1 Cor. 1:9)
What we are made by obeying the call:
- We are made sons of God (John 1:12)
- We are made the children of God (Gal. 3:26)
- We are made the servants of God (Matt. 25:21)
- We are made God's saints (Col. 1:1)
- We are made God's witnesses (I Thess. 2:10)
- We are made workers together with God (2 Cor. 6:1)
- We are called to a high calling (Phil. 3:14)
- We are called to a holy calling (2 Tim. 1:9)
- We are called to a heavenly calling (Heb. 3:1)
47. Martin Luther King, Jr., A Servant of Christ
Illustration
Mark Trotter
In the Union Tribune there was an article about Martin Luther King, Jr., which included an interview with Vincent Harding, a professor at the Iliff School of Theology in Denver, a Methodist seminary.
Harding said that King's detractors like to point out that he was a human being, that he had faults, human foibles. He was certainly not a saint, Harding points out. He made mistakes in judgment. He put his marriage to the test. He also suffered from human frailties, like anxiety and depression.
But Christianity proclaims a God who came to us as we are, accepted us as we are, forgave us and gave us new life, and thus revealed that we do not have to be righteous in order to be loved by God. We don't have to have a pure life in order to follow Jesus. We just have to be faithful.
He comes to us as he came to his disciples, and says to us, "Follow me." To "follow me" means, identifying with the poor and the oppressed, loving the sinner, and living sacrificially for others in this world, taking up your cross. That is the sole qualification for everybody to be his disciple - that you will take up your cross.
Martin Luther King understood that, I think, probably better than anybody else in our time. Like all historical figures, he will be interpreted from different perspectives. But the way he would want to be interpreted is that he was a "servant of Christ."
48. Other Voices
Illustration
John M. Braaten
The call of our Lord is "hidden" in a whole chorus of worldly voices which beckon us. Other would-be shepherds seek to tempt us away from the Good Shepherd, the joy of his forgiveness and the security of his love. And when we are weak and confused we may fall victim to the enticements of other gods.
An American tourist traveling in the Mid East came upon several shepherds whose flocks had intermingled while drinking water from a brook. After an exchange of greetings, one of the shepherds turned toward the sheep and called out, "Manah. Manah. Manah." (Manah means "follow me" in Arabic.) Immediately his sheep separated themselves from the rest and followed him.
Then one of the two remaining shepherds called out, "Manah. Manah." and his sheep left the common flock to follow him. The traveler then said to the third shepherd, "I would like to try that. Let me put on your cloak and turban and see if I can get the rest of the sheep to follow me."
The shepherd smiled knowingly as the traveler wrapped himself in the cloak, put the turban on his head and called out, "Manah. Manah." The sheep did not respond to the stranger's voice. Not one of them moved toward him. "Will the sheep ever follow someone other than you?" The traveler asked.
"Oh yes," the shepherd replied, "sometimes a sheep gets sick, and then it will follow anyone."
We have seen it, haven't we? People, young and old, who are "sick." Battered by the storms of life and distracted by voices urging them to go this way and that, they have lost their bearings and they don't know where they are or where they are going. That can be more than a little frightening; it leads to despair, to hopelessness. And when someone is "sick" they will follow anyone who will promise a moment of happiness, a brief feeling of peace or forgetfulness, a sense that they are someone.
But the call of Jesus the Good Shepherd is, "I am the Way, the Truth, and the Life." There is no better way, no greater truth, no happier life. Our Lord reaches out to us in love that we might follow him.
49. Commitment
Illustration
It is characteristic of great leaders to make demands upon their followers. When Winston Churchill became Prime Minister he told the British people that he had nothing to offer them but "blood, toil, tears, and sweat." The Italian freedom fighter Gerabaldi told his followers that he offered them only hunger and death.
These were demanding leaders, but Jesus was a thousand times more demanding then they were. Jesus said, "So, therefore, whoever of you does not renounce all that he has cannot be my disciple." Possession cannot stand between you and the Lord. Jesus went so far as to say, "If anyone comes to me and does not hate his own mother and father, his wife and children, his brothers and sisters, he cannot be my disciple." Even something as noble as the love of family, as good and right as that is, cannot stand in the way of commitment to the Kingdom of God. Jesus said, "If any man would come after me let him deny himself and take up his cross and follow me." Laziness, fear, selfishness, family nothing can stand between us and the call to discipleship. Jesus Christ demands our obedience. Jesus is not some wishy-washy little fellow coming up to us, hat in hand, hoping to win our favor, saying softly: Please sir, may I have a word with you." He comes to us as the Lord of History and makes demands: Take up you cross and follow me." He comes to us as one to be obeyed.
50. Love for Neighbor
Illustration
Staff
An ancient rabbi once asked his pupils how they could tell when the night had ended and the day was on its way back.
"When you see an animal in the distance and can tell what kind of animal it is" answered one pupil.
"No" replied the rabbi.
"When you see a tree in the distance and can tell what kind of tree it is" replied another.
"No" answered the rabbi.
"Well then" his pupils asked "how can we tell when night has ended and day has arrived?"
"It is when you look into the face of another man or woman and see that he or she is your brother or sister. If you can't do this, no matter what time it is, it is still night."
Jesus is the Light of the World and the most important thing we can do is to let His light shine by "loving God with all our heart, with all our soul, with all our mind, and with all our strength." And "Loving our neighbor as our self."
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- How Does Project 2025 Compare to the Beloved Community?
